【作者】 杨开泛；

【导师】 刘迺银；

【作者基本信息】 华东师范大学 ， 英语语言文学， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 在盎格鲁-撒克逊研究领域,对于时间问题的研究最早可以追溯到1895年。这一年,学者塔珀(Frederick Tupper)详细考证了盎格鲁-撒克逊时期对于时间的划分,以及这种划分对于神职人员的意义。但在塔珀之后,似乎没有更多学者对这个问题做深入的研究。这种情况只有到了20世纪80年代才发生了根本性的改变,时间问题也重新回到了盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者的批评视野。在重新编写古英语词典的学术背景之下,一些知名的盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者,如卡梅隆(Angus Cameron)、巴特利(Janet Bately)、斯特赖特(Victor L. Strite)、索尔(Hans Sauer),开始研究古英语的时间词汇,分析具体古英语文本中的时间观念。与此同时,另外一些盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者开始关注时间问题的历史语境,如鲍斯查茨(Paul C. Bauschatz Bauschatz)把时间问题的讨论置于整个早期日耳曼的文化传统,分析早期日耳曼文化对于时间观念的独特认识,而戈登(Malcolm Godden)则是讨论古英语布道文中的时间、千禧年(millennium)以及历史叙述的问题。然而综观盎格鲁-撒克逊学术传统中的时间研究,不难发现,对于时间问题的重视程度与时间问题的重要性并不成正比。而认知语言学家对于时间问题的关注则为盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间研究提供了一个新的理论视角。虽然戈登和鲍斯查茨等一些盎格鲁-撒克逊研究者也强调了时间的重要性,但是他们并没有认为时间是盎格鲁-撒克逊文化的基本问题,也没有提出时间观念可以影响其它观念的论断。而这一点却是认知语言学家所强调的。首先,以莱考夫(George Lakoff),品克(Steven Pinker)以及埃文斯(Vyvyan Evans)为代表的认知语言学家强调了时间观念在理解人类观念体系中的基础地位。这一点对于盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间研究非常重要。其次,以研究时间认知出名的埃文斯提出了研究时间问题两个层面的观念结构(conceptual structure):词汇层面(lexical concepts)以及认知模型层面(cognitive models)。根据埃文斯的论述,在第一个层面,时间与八种不同的词汇意义联系在一起；而在第二个层面,时间通常被概念化为空间和运动(space and motion)的观念。埃文斯对于时间观念的分析为我们研究盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下的时间问题提供了一个可行的框架。最后,以莱考夫和品克为代表的认知语言学家特别强调时间观念的隐喻性,并专门提出概念隐喻理论(conceptual metaphor theory)来分析人类观念中的隐喻现象。对于时间观念的隐喻性的理解无疑拓宽了时间观念的分析范围。基于上述认知语言学的基本概念和假设,论文尝试利用古英语文本中的时间词汇、隐喻、风格以及叙述模式来分析时间观念三个层面的问题。第一个层面是将来观念(the concept of the future)。将来观念是盎格鲁-撒克逊语境下最显著的一个词汇观念。第二个层面是时间流动观念(the concept of time flow)。通过分析线性(linearity)和循环性(cyclicity)等问题突出时间观念第二个层面的问题。此外,论文还重点分析永恒观念(the concept of eternity)。永恒观念是基于对将来和时间流动的理解之上,因而可以视为时间观念第三个层面的问题,也是最复杂的问题。对于这时间观念三个层面问题的讨论可以彰显在盎格鲁-撤克逊语境下时间观念的复杂性,透过盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的冲突,可以从一个微观的角度观察盎格鲁-撒克逊时期思想与观念的冲突和演变。论文第一章首先论述时间观念在人类思想中的重要性,从学理层面确立论文研究的价值；接着对盎格鲁-撒克逊研究领域的时间研究进行梳理和总结,将论文的研究置于整个盎格鲁-撒克逊研究的传统之中,从研究史的角度确立论文研究的意义；最后,论文还从理论基础和研究方法层面论证论文研究的必要性。论文第二章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人如何看待将来观念。作为早期日耳曼文化与中世纪基督教文明冲突的一个焦点,将来的观念是观察盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的一个重要参数。在基督教的观念体系中,将来观念带有强烈的末世论色彩,而在只对现在和过去做二元区分的早期日耳曼文化中,将来观念是空缺的。面对着两种截然不同的将来观,盎格鲁-撒克逊人既不是采取非此即彼的策略,也不是将二者相加,而是力图在二者间寻找一个平衡点,化解观念冲突的内在张力。《贝奥武甫》诗人(the Beowulf-poet)似乎是在跌宕起伏的叙述融入了末世论的判断,无法摆脱命运(wyrd)束缚的日耳曼英雄在《贝奥武甫》诗人眼里也成了上帝的殉道者。作为一国之君,阿尔弗雷德国王(King Alfred)的应对策略与《贝奥武甫》诗人存在着差异,他把过去的辉煌视为英格兰文化复兴的一个参照点,因而在阿尔弗雷德国王视域里的将来是一种对于过去的乡愁,而非对末世的期待。这种文化上的乡愁并非阿尔弗雷德国王所独有,古英语诗歌《狄奥尔》(Deor)和《废墟》(The Ruin)更是把早期日耳曼文化中的现在与过去的二元区分表现得淋漓尽致,以过去为参照,反观现在,实则是对将来的一种期待。作为盎格鲁-撒克逊时期的一名神学家兼历史学家,比德(Bede)把《创世纪》中上帝创世的七天解读为世界时间的六纪(the Six Ages of the World),第七纪则是时间的终止,并且把将来界定为这其中的第七纪(The Seventh Age),且把这种六纪的时间观念融入他对历史的叙述当中,因而比德的将来观带有强烈的末世论色彩。与之形成对照的则是记录《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》(The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)的僧侣们,他们表面上借用基督教的时间体系来组织他们的历史叙述,似乎是把历史的进程纳入基督教的时间体系,但事实上则是借助神权确定王权的正当性,而将来观念更多体现为对一个世俗意义上的国家意识的一种追求。因此,本章认为盎格鲁-撒克逊人并没有一种统一的将来观,但他们对将来的理解却是游离于对过去的乡愁和对末世的期待之间。论文第三章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间流动观念(the concept of time flow).时间流动涉及时间的动态变化,关注时间如何从一个状态演变为另一个状态,因而时间流动观念是描绘时间观念的另外一个重要维度。作为时间流动观念的特殊形式,线性或是循环不仅是对于时间观念的空间化表述,而且将时间的这个线性或循环的特征融入到对历史进程的一种判断,这体现了时间观念在人类观念系统中的重要地位,对人类认识历史的发展进程起到了一个非常重要的作用。对时间的线性或循环判断,不仅关涉时间问题,还涉及历史发展的进程问题。如果说将来观念是时间连续体(continuum)中的一个点,那么线性或是循环则是关注时间连续体中两个点之间的关系。在中世纪早期的基督教观念体系中,时间始于创世(the Creation),终结于末日审判(the Last Judgement),因而时间是线性的；而在早期日耳曼观念体系中,现在与过去的二元区分则衍生出现在与过去的不断更替,因而时间是循环的。面对这样的观念冲突,盎格鲁-撒克逊人的应对是比较谨慎的。《英吉利教会史》和《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》基本上是以一种线性的时间观念去叙述历史的发展,但二者对于这种线性历史中体现出的发展趋势的判断是明显不同的,前者基本上是一部拯救史(salvation history),而后者则是把线性的发展界定为世俗社会的发展与进步。《古斯拉克A》(Guthlac A)是一部独具盎格鲁-撒克逊特色的圣徒史,这里的线性历史体现为古斯拉克由普通人变为圣徒的过程的单向性和线性。但是盎格鲁-撒克逊人眼中的基督教历史并非都是呈现这种线性和单向的特征,当《基督Ⅲ》(Christ III)的作者呈现最后的末日审判情景时,便打破时间的线性推进,突出末日审判前的反复和曲折。对于时间的线性或是循环特征处理最为复杂的当数《贝奥武甫》诗人,一方面,他把早期的日耳曼部落的历史描绘为一部永无了结的仇恨史(the never-ending feud),另一方面,他又把贝奥武甫描绘为一位能终结这样循环历史的英雄,因而对于《贝奥武甫》诗人来说,历史既不是循环的仇恨,也不是线性的殉道,而是一种螺旋式的向前发展。因此,从上述分析的盎格鲁-撒克逊时期文本来看,对盎格鲁-撒克逊人而言,基督教的线性时间观念与早期日耳曼的循环时间观念之间并不存在着不可调和的矛盾,而盎格鲁-撒克逊人似乎更乐意去接受用线性的时间观念去述说他们的历史,而历史对于他们而言,也呈现更多的目的性和方向性。对于盎格鲁-撒克逊而言,线性的历史并非都是救赎史,也可以是与循环时间观念共存的另外一种时间流动观念。论文第四章分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人如何看待永恒观念。永恒观念是时间观念中最为复杂的问题,不仅关涉时间的将来和时间的空间维度,还关涉人与上帝之间的关系,时间的起源,时间的结束等诸多问题。因此,永恒问题也可以视为关于时间的一个综合问题。这一章分析永恒概念的中世纪语境,区分永恒概念的两个维度：“无限性”(everlastingness)和“无时性”(timelessness),认为前者代表永恒的世俗意义(secular meaning),而后者则代表永恒的宗教意义(sacred meaning)。就早期日耳曼文化而言,他们并不缺乏“无限性”的永恒观念,但他们缺少的是上帝让时间停止,时间终结的“无时性”的永恒观念,这一点可以从拉丁语词汇"ceternalis"和古英语词汇"ecelice"在语义场及词源上的差异得到验证,古英语词汇"ecelice"强调的是时间在空间上的无限延伸,因而是“无限性”的永恒。于是,盎格鲁-撒克逊人面临的问题是如何去接受基督教中以上帝为中心的“无时性”的永恒观念。这一章认为,盎格鲁-撒克逊人并不是利用“无限性”的永恒观念去同化“无时性”的永恒观念,而是从他们自身关于人生苦短的特殊经历入手,突出他们对于时间的无法掌控,以此来反衬上帝是时间的主宰者。以一种世俗的经历去理解基督教的永恒观,并不是要否定基督教永恒观的神圣性,而是突出永恒观念的神圣性背后所体现出来的救赎意义。从这种意义上来看,盎格鲁-撒克逊人对于永恒的理解已经超越一种纯粹的时间观念,而上升为他们对命运的一种思考,对人死后生活的一种期待,有着强烈的现实诉求。论文的结论部分简要总结了前面的论点,综合分析盎格鲁-撒克逊人时间观念的多层面意义,认为盎格鲁-撒克逊人的时间观念是一个复杂的综合体,是早期日耳曼时间观念与中世纪基督教时间观念相互交融后的一种特殊产物。这二者之间的张力与互动塑造了盎格鲁-撒克逊人基督教化的日耳曼时间观念,或是日耳曼化的基督教时间观念。时间是一个极具辐射性的单位思想("unit-idea"),透过时间观念,可以洞见盎格鲁-撤克逊人对于过去的乡愁,对于末世的期待,对于历史的判断,对于国家意识的追求,对于命运的思考等等。更多还原

【Abstract】 Though it has not received explicit critical attention in the previous Anglo-Saxon scholarship, the issue of how time is perceived in Anglo-Saxon literature and culture has a long critical tradition. This can be dated to1895, when Frederick Tupper examined in detail the Anglo-Saxon division of time and what it meant to the Anglo-Saxon clerk and layman. Yet, there is an academic discontinuity between Tupper and more recent Anglo-Saxonists:only in1980s has the issue of time come to the critical focus again. Anglo-Saxonists such as Angus Cameron, Janet Bately, Victor L. Strite and Hans Sauer either investigated some time words in Old English or examined the concept of time in individual Old English texts in the academic context of recompiling a new Old English dictionary, the important Dictionary of Old English. In1982, Paul C. Bauschatz examined early Germanic traditions in the perception of time, and in2003, Malcolm Godden dealt with time, millennium and history with his focus primarily on Old English homilies. However, much remains to be investigated. In particular, the assumptions and concepts from cognitive linguistics offer an opportunity to reconsider the issue of time in the Anglo-Saxon context, supplying a new way to bring together and address in more fundamental terms of "outlook" the ideas of time in Anglo-Saxon literature and culture.For although Anglo-Saxonists such as Godden and Bauschatz noticed the importance of time in interpreting Anglo-Saxon culture, they did not go to the extent of showing how time was fundamental and influenced the perceptions of many other concepts. Crucial means for doing both things are available from cognitive linguists such as George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, Steven Pinker and Vyvyan Evans, who have emphasised the fundamental role of time in understanding our conceptual system. Morever, Evans, most notable for study of temporal cognition, observed two levels of conceptual structure for time:lexical concepts and cognitive models for time. According to Evans, at the first level, time is usually related to eight distinct lexical concepts, while at the second level, time is conceptualised in terms of space and motion. Evans’s elaboration of the two levels of conceptual structure provides a feasible framework for the discussion of time in Anglo-Saxon materials. Yet we need to evaluate whether the eight lexical concepts are equally important, or if some concepts are more prominent than others in the Anglo-Saxon context. Finally, cognitive linguists such as Lakoff and Pinker highlighted the metaphorical nature of time and proposed the conceptual metaphor theory to explain the complexity of time.This dissertation attempts to study the concepts of time in Old English literature on the basis of Evans’s two levels of conceptual structure, through a series of analyses of time words, metaphors, styles, and narrative modes in various Old English texts. At the first level, this dissertation deals with the concept of the future, the most prominent lexical concept in the Anglo-Saxon context. At the second level, it examines the conceptualisation of time in terms of spatial relations and motion such as linearity and cyclicity. Beyond these two levels mentioned by Evans, there is a third level in the Anglo-Saxon context, namely the concept of eternity, which is closed related to the concepts of the future and time flow. An examination of the three levels of time could help to highlight time as a many-sided and widely significant concept, allowing us to penetrate the complexities concerning the development and evolution of various ideas and thought in Anglo-Saxon England.This dissertation is organized to test this approach and unfold its implications. Chapter1begins with a discussion of the major position of time in human thought, then gives a retrospective review of the studies on time in the foregoing Anglo-Saxon scholarship, and finally elaborates on the theoretical foundations and methodologies of this dissertation. The following chapters assess the kinds of temporality described above. Chapter2deals with the concept of the future. When the eschatological future in early medieval Christianity encounters the early Germanic culture which simply views the binary division between the past and the present, the concept of the future becomes significant in the discussion of the Anglo-Saxon concepts of time and lies at the very centre of the conflict and assimilation of these two conceptual systems. Rather than taking an either-or strategy, Anglo-Saxon authors made efforts to strike a balance and to resolve the inner tension concerning the concept of the future in these two conceptual systems. The Beowulf-poet integrated the eschatological future in his narration and described Beowulf as both a Germanic hero who can not escape the wyrd and a Christian martyr who sacrifices his life for future happiness. King Alfred viewed the past glory of England as the reference point for his programme to revive learning in England and thus his concept of the future is the nostalgia for the glorious past rather than an expectation for the prophetic future. King Alfred was not alone in his nostalgic attitude towards the glorious past and in the two Old English poems Deor and The Ruin, the poets equated the concept of the future to a nostalgic attitude of returning to the past. In contrast, Bede strictly followed the Christian tradition and defined the future as the Seventh Age of the world within the Christian framework of time reference. In the case of Chronicle, under its seemingly Christian framework, the concept of the future is dominated by the political rhetoric and logic and is associated with the national awareness of having a politically united England. In this sense, we may claim that the Anglo-Saxon concept of the future lingers between the glorious past and the prophetic future. The Anglo-Saxon authors, exemplified by the Beowulf-poet, Bede, King Alfred, the Chronicle-annalists, etc. maintained different stances on this issue, yet their differences are primarily defined by degrees to which they positioned the future in the continuum from the past glory to the prophetic future.Chapter3examines the concept of time flow. This concept involves the dynamic aspect of the concepts of time and examines how time changes from one state to another. As another dimension of time, it is not only associated with the spatial conceptualisation of time, but also with the development of history. In the traditional discussion of the concept of time flow, the dichotomy between’linear’and’cyclical’ has been made to describe how time changes from one state to another. Whether time is perceived as linear or cyclical determines how history is narrated. In the conceptual system of early medieval Christianity, time begins with the Creation and ends with the Last Judgment, and thus time is linear. In the early Germanic culture that views the binary division between the past and the present, time progresses as a constant and cyclical shift between the past and the present. In the confrontation of the linearity and cyclicity of time, the Anglo-Saxon authors adopted different strategies to resolve this conflict of ideas. In the case of HE and Chronicle, though both Bede and the Chronicle-annalists described a linear progression of history, the linearity of time were understood in a different manner:the former interpreted the linearity of history in its highly prophetic and eschatological sense, while the latter saw linearity as a natural continuation of time. In some other cases like Guthlac A and Christ Ⅲ, the linearity of time was slightly adapted to narrate the history of an individual saint:the Guthlac-poet metaphorised the saint Guthlac as a tidfara ("time-traveller"), while the Christ Ⅲ-poet reversed the linearity of time to recount the awesome process of the Last Judgment. In the most complex case of Beowulf, with the integration of the linearity and cyclicity of time, the Beowulf-poet related the never-ending feuds of the Germanic tribes with a spiral perception of history. This chapter concludes that the Anglo-Saxon authors were more apt to employ the framework of linear time to organise their histories with different historical intentionalities.Chapter4deals with the concept of eternity. The distinction between "everlastingness" and "timelessness" is of great importance:the former indicates the secularity of eternity, while the latter concerns the sacredness of eternity. First, with a comparison between the Latin word ceternalis and its Old English translation ecelice, it concludes that the time words for eternity in Old English are more concerned with the secular meaning. Then, it examines the concept of eternity in Dream and the eagan bryhtm metaphor in HE, and explains why the Dream-poet focused on the secularity of eternity. Finally, with its focus on The Phoenix and The Wanderer, it demonstrates that the Anglo-Saxon transitory experience contributes to their understanding of the concept of eternity as the fulfilment of worldly aspiration. The early Germanic concept of ’everlasting’ eternity and the Anglo-Saxon secular experience of transience function as the receptive background for the Christian concept of ’timeless’ eternity to become adopted and assimilated by the Anglo-Saxon authors in their writings.Drawing together the conclusions of the preceding chapters, the concluding chapter concludes that the Anglo-Saxon concepts of time are the special combination of the two cultural strains in Anglo-Saxon England. The tension and interaction between these two strains have formulated the Germanised Christian concepts of time or the Christianised Germanic concepts of time. The concepts of time, as has been demonstrated, are embedded in nostalgia for the past, the expectation of the end of the world, the judgment of history, the aspiration for national identity, and the contemplation of fate.更多还原