【作者】 张苓；

【导师】 刘陆鹏；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 马克思主义哲学， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 道德起源是一个历久弥新的哲学论题,它本身就包含着解答问题的悬疑：道德到底是指什么?起源发生于何时?道德到底如何起源?对于如何界定道德?笔者通过历史的梳理、已有的研究和道德起源这个论题本身的逻辑预设,试图从论文本身给出道德一个宽泛的定义。道德先是一种实践、一种文化创生,一种秩序,其次才是一种意识形态、观念。对道德的定义,会衍生出另一个问题,道德的起源与道德的发生。这是研究道德的两种路径。道德的发生是人类知识结构的生成,是观念的发生。道德起源是事件发生,是社会实践。但是,两者又不是分离的。道德发生有效解决了起源研究将起源绝对化以及无法解释认知结构生成机制的问题。如果把道德看成是人类所独有的,那么道德起源于古代漫长的历史时期,它是随着社会发展,和人类一起成长的。因此,起源问题涉及到时间和空间的宏观跨度,要以现在的时空位移到上古时期人类思想启蒙之时。原始社会的初始浑沌是道德起源的母体。所谓浑沌母体,不是杂乱一团,它有自己特有的运行特征和规律。要研究道德的起源,就是要从浑沌母体中,找到一些闪光的碎片,它们是最有代表性,与道德联系最为紧密,通过对它们的研究切入到道德起源中。同时,道德在起源过程中,本身也作为一碎片,同其他因素融合在一起。作为碎片之一的原始思维,是从思、言说的角度,对道德起源的主体性特征进行探究。图腾、禁忌作为原始宗教的表征,则是从心理认知以及价值判断的角度,对道德起源进行研究。巫卜祭祀是从行为的功用性角度,剖析道德的起源。神话是记忆传承的主要载体,是历史沿袭下来研究道德起源的“活化石”。习俗则是从规范调节角度进行论述,它是最接近道德起源的因素。当然原始思维、图腾与禁忌、巫卜祭祀、神话、习俗,他们都不是各自断裂的,是一种你中有我,我中有你的亲缘性关系。这一切都内生于原始社会大的时代背景条件下,在原始实践的发展历程中,或者它们本身就作为一种实践,随着历史延续到现在。道德同人类社会的发展类同,是个自我修正的过程。道德产生于古代社会这一巨大的社会环境中,生产力等器物文明的发展,影响到了道德的起源。物质生产的发展是不断改善人类生存境遇的过程。这从原始社会的采集、狩猎、农业、畜牧以及生产工具的不断改进可以看出。物质生产的完善和发展是道德起源的基础性条件,因而道德起源与人的生存紧密相连。而在人的生产中,以婚姻为基础的家庭关系、亲属关系、亲属制度是原始人类社会初始的交往形式。人类的交往,必然有一定规范在维系。原初的道德是离不开对两性关系和亲属关系的调整。氏族是人类第一个正式的社会组织形式,它成为道德起源的社会单元。人类的发展和精神文化的进步缘由于人类的实践是不断发展的,道德起源于人类的交往活动,正是在实践中,产生了原始道德。原始社会的实践始终伴有一层神秘的外衣,不像现代人处于理性和科学的指导下。原始人的思维是一种集体意识向性思维,在其中,是非观念的产生、自我意识的觉醒都蕴含着道德萌芽。同时,原始思维所特有的神秘互渗以及万物有灵,使得道德在起源过程中具有持久的可变性。而在原始思维的一系列纠错中产生了原始善恶观。思维和语言存在着双生关系,语言的表达与交流在人类社会长期的发展中,必然会产生一定的秩序和规范,随着秩序和规范的普遍化、客观化,于是就形成了“是非”、“正义”、“善”等道德词语。关于道德内容的述说一旦表达出来,道德就已经在文化中成为独立的一部分。语言对道德有一种肯定或否定的态度,长而久之,语言便具有了道德使命。原始思维和语言的述说是道德起源的主体必要条件,同时原始人经常幻想和制定出无数图腾、禁忌、礼仪,这进而成为原始人行为规范中的重要组成部分。图腾、禁忌虽不是我们今天所定义的道德规范,但在古代社会,却履行着道德规范的职责。图腾、禁忌中的规范因带有原始宗教的神秘因素,从而使道德具有了神性的权威。因此,道德在原始社会走的是一条非制度化、借助于人的情感、信念等宗教因素来起作用的发展道路。大量的人类学资料指出,人类的道德状态首先始于图腾、禁忌,图腾、禁忌就是原始人类所能有的最早的道德法典。图腾、禁忌在道德起源中,表现出原始人作为道德主体被动的一面。而伴随巫卜祭祀文化的流行,原始人主动性的一面开始表露。他们积极同神沟通,巫师便是这样一个独立的职业。上古时期,巫师有着道德传承的重要功能,同时也起着一定的道德标杆作用。卜筮祭祀文化,这在中国更具有代表性。卜筮祭祀更多是作为一种礼仪,祈求上天、先祖福佑,同时先人也通过卜筮、祭祀的推行,建立了一定伦理道德秩序。神话传说是道德起源的“活化石”。神话具有幻想性,是一种集体行为,同时也具有一定的真实性。神话,作为在现代生活中依然存在的对远古现实的描述,为我们提供了一种远古时代的道德价值、社会秩序。道德的美好向往都体现在神话中。原始社会在发展过程中慢慢解构神秘性的一面,渐渐积淀出特有的风俗习惯。它是世代传承的习俗、习惯和行为模式。风俗习惯的推行依靠的是社会心理、习惯势力对人类思想、言行的维系,它是内化于人的强有力的内在规范机制。经过各种文化形态的冲突和融合,有的原始社会习俗转化为具有“应该”“正当”价值范畴的道德规范。有的发展成了法律,有的或依旧作为习俗存在着。这都归因于社会实践的需要。总之,道德起源是人的实践创造,规范维系,文化创生的过程。道德起源的历史是一个不断修正的、功利化的发展历程,它与人的生存紧密联系。在生存实践中,道德成为人特定的价值预设,从原始的稚嫩发展成非制度化的道德律。原始思维、图腾与禁忌、巫卜祭祀、神话、习俗在道德起源过程中,以两条路径展开：原始思维——图腾与禁忌——巫卜祭祀,原始思维——神话,最后两条路径都归结到习俗,或者说习俗贯穿于两条路径的始终。在原始的生存实践中,以集体表象为特征的原逻辑的思维,以一种神秘的、有灵的、神圣的的思维产生出了最初的是非观和善恶观。集体表象下也有着个体自我意识的觉醒,这是道德起源过程中道德由集体的意志慢慢内化为自身意识的前提条件。原始思维塑造了原始人特有的心理情感和价值判断。恐惧、敬畏、崇拜、迷茫使的原始人在一开始的社会实践中就选择了图腾崇拜和禁忌。图腾崇拜本身就是一种集体行为,原始人以图腾为名,自发的进行生产和调节人与人之间的关系。所以道德从来都是人类的集体规范,但在运行过程中,它不断的进行着集体与个体之间的博弈。集体不断的将其意志灌输给个人,个体起初只是无意识的接受,渐渐的个体会有背离,因集体的惩罚和孤立,又回归到集体。在此博弈过程中,凡是对整体有利的即视为是道德的,而个体只能无条件的消化吸收。对图腾所表现出来的敬畏感和恐惧感,掺杂在世俗的日常生活中,使得日常的规范具有了神的强制性。原始思维中是非观念的产生,是禁忌产生的主要依据。原始禁忌种类繁多,最早具有道德规范性质的是两性禁忌。可以说两性禁忌是第一条道德禁律。它是氏族社会关系道德约束的基础,也是道德由他律转为自律的精彩展现,作为集体的他者依靠着禁忌心理,使得禁忌的遵守成为一种道德规范的自律。图腾与禁忌在道德起源过程中的被动性,促使人企图积极同神沟通,巫卜祭祀文化因而产生了。巫卜祭祀在道德起源的过程中具有功利性的一面。无论是巫师、卜者、还是祭司,都在祈求神福佑人类,当然他们也对神表现了虔诚的崇拜。他们是人类最早的精神文化的传播者,是具有道德使命的主体,是道德起源的助推者。原始语言和原始思维是共存的。原始语言的诉说开辟了道德起源的另一路经。关于道德的内容一旦诉说出来,语言便具有了道德的使命。善言才能善行。因而,伴随道德语言的产生,道德认知和道德评价产生了,这是道德起源过程中的标志性事件。神话和语言具有同构性。它是记忆传承的载体,是道德起源过程中道德规范传播和定型的主要工具。神话通过有声的语言和集体的传播,把人类的美好道德期盼加以推广和延续。在原始思维与图腾、禁忌、巫卜祭祀、神话的融合过程中,习惯的力量其实一直都贯彻其中。在发展中,习俗慢慢具备了道德规范的雏形,并渐露了道德的端倪。习惯的力量,对于传统的敬畏,已经使得习俗由于自身的原因被原始人遵守。在习俗中,道德已经完全实现了由他律到自律的转换。因而,道德在起初产生时,采取了原始宗教的、习俗的形式,渐渐的道德和它们产生了背离。道德不再表现为图腾、禁忌、巫卜祭祀、神话、习俗所表现出来的规范,而是道德变成了它自己。人类社会的实践发展是道德产生的前提条件,随着人类理性自觉意识的觉醒,原始社会的神性因素慢慢褪去,道德不再需凭借崇拜之命、禁忌之约,也不需要巫卜祭祀的仪式或巫师、卜者去与神沟通,也不需要神话去做道德普及,道德从神的权威来到世俗化的人间。同时,道德也摆脱了习俗世俗化和狭隘性的外壳。于是,道德产生了。更多还原

【Abstract】 The origin of morality is a newer with time philosophical topic. It includes suspense of solving problem itself:what is the morality on earth? When is the origin? How does the morality happen?How to define the morality? The paper tries to give a broad definition on morality through historical combing, previous research and the topic itself of logical hypothesis. Morality is practice, culture creating and a kind of order, then it is an idea, ideology. The definition of morality can deduce the following problem:the origin of morality and occurrence of morality which are the different path on studing morality. The happening of morality is creating of structure of knowledge, the happening of idea. The origin of morality is events occurred, social practice. But the two are not separation, occurrence of morality solves the absolution which the origin of morality result in, and don’t explain the creating of structure of knowledge. If morality is man owning, it starts at the ancient time. It grows with human. So the origin involves the macro span of time and space. It must move from now to enlightment of mankind in the ancient time.Initial chaos is the mother in the primitive society. The chaos is not huddle, and it has own unique operating characteristic and order itself. In the research of morality, we can find some flash fragments from the mother which are the most representative and close relations with morality. At the same time, morality as a fragment, combines with the others fragments in the research of origin. Primitive thinking studies subjective characteristics in the research from the aspect of thinking and expression. Totem and taboo as primitive religion studies from the psychological cognition and value judgment. Sorcery, divination and sacrifice analyze the origin from behavior function. Myth is the carrier of and living fossil of the research. Custom studies it from norms regulation, it is the closest factors to origin of morality. Primitive thinking, totem and taboo, sorcery, divination and sacrifice, myth and custom are not isolation and kin relationship. All grow in the era of big background in the primitive society. Morality is a self-correcting course as the human society. Implements civilization as productive force affects the origin of morality in the social environment of primitive society. The development of material production is a process improving human living constantly. It can be seen from gathering, hunting, agriculture, animal husbandry which are been improvement in the production department. The improvement and development of material production is the basic conditions of the origin of morality, then the origin connects closely with people’s survival. In people’s production, family relation, kinship and kinship system building the marriage base are the initial form in the primitive society. A kind of order maintains in the human interaction. Original morality can’t leave to adjust the sexual relations and kinship. Clan is the first formal social organization and the unit of the origin.Human development and progress of spiritual culture come from the advance of practice. The origin of morality is from human’s interaction. It is the practice that produces morality.The original practice is always accompanied by a layer of mystery. Human material production is not been directed by ration and science as now. The primitive thinking is a collective awareness with a mysterious mutual permeability. Right and wrong ideas and self-consciousness contain moral bud. At the same time, mysterious mutual permeation and all things having spirit make morality variable. In a series of error correction, the original good and evil idea occurred. Thinking and language are twin relation. Expression and communication of language must produce certain order and rhythm in the long-term development. Objective and general order and rhythm need to express in the language, so moral terms as should, justice, morality forms. The moral content once expressed, then has the universality. Language has a positive and negative attitude for the morality. For a long time, language has moral mission.Primitive thinking and language are necessary for the origin of morality, at the same time, the primitive man often fantasy and make numerous totem, taboo, etiquette, then becoming an important part of primitive conductions. Totem and taboo are not a strict code of ethics as today, but it plays an important role in the original code of ethics in the ancient society. The primitive man couldn’t survive and development without a series of mysterious behavior standards. We also can’t understand why morality takes a non-institutionalized path with the aid of human conscience and belief in the development of human society. From a lot of anthropology datas, morality first starts in the totem and taboo which is the earliest moral code in the primitive society.Totem and taboo show passive side in the origin of morality. With the popularity of sorcery, divination, sacrifice culture, the primitive man initiative side began to show. They actively communicate with God, so witch is such an independent career. In the ancient time, the wizard has the important function of inheritance of ethics, at the same time, morality also plays a certain role. Divination and sacrifice is more representative in china. Divination and sacrifice are more kind of etiquette, pray to god and ancestors, also establish a certain ethical order with ancestors.Myth is the living fossil of the origin. Myth is fantasy and a kind of collective behavior, also has a certain reality. Myth provides us moral value and social order in the ancient time as a description of ancient reality existing now. Moral aspirations are embodied in the myth.Morality deconstructs slowly the mystery of the origin. A peculiar customs gradually forms. It is the intergenerational customs, habits and behavior patterns. To implement customs and habits depends on social psychology which maintains the thoughts and words. It is internalized by strong internal specification mechanism. Through all kinds of cultural conflict and fusion, some original social customs become ’should’and’fair’value category ethics. In the implementation and development of customs, some become morality, some become law, some still exist as a custom.In a word, the origin of morality is people’s practice, codes maintaining, the process of cultural creation, which is closely related with human survival. It is also constant correction, utilitarian development course. In survival practice, morality is the value judgment, from the original immature to non-institutionalized moral law. Primitive thinking, totem and taboo, sorcery, divination and sacrifice, myth and customs is two paths in the process of origin of morality:primitive thinking-totem and taboo-sorcery, divination and sacrifice, primitive thinking-myth, the two paths are due to the customs.In the practice of the original survival, primitive thinking characterized by collective representation produces right and wrong, good and evil idea. Under the collective representation, the awakening of individual self-consciousness is premise condition of the origin of morality. Primitve thinking shaped the primitive psychological emotion and value judgment. Fear, worship, and confusion make the primitive people choose totem and taboo. Totem worship is a collective behavior, and the primitive man adjust the relationship of the people with it. So the morality has always been collective collaboration, but in the process of running, constantly playing between the collective and individual. Collective constantly instilled the idea to individual, firstly, individual is unconsciously accepting, then deviate it, for collective punishment and isolation, and return to the collective. In the course of the game, benefiting to the whole is morality, but individual can accept unconditional. Awe and fear of totem dop in daily life, so everyday specification also brings divine color, then morality also has a religious color. Right and wrong idea of primitive thinking is the basis of taboo. There are many different kinds of primitive taboo, and the earliest is sex taboo. So the sex taboo is the first moral prohibitions. It is the basis of moral constrains in the clan, also presents moral practice from heteronomy to autonomy. As a otherness of collective, depending on taboo psychology, taboo abiding makes a code of morality autonomy. Totem and taboo presents passivity. Prompting man to communicate with god actively, sorcery, divination and sacrifice culture thus produce. Sacrifice has utilitarian side in the origin of morality. Wizard, teller, and priests are trying to communicate with god, pray for god’s blessings, of course, they also show a devout worship to god. They are the earliest human cultural communicators, is the main body of moral mission, is the origin of moral booster. The primitive language and original thinking is coexistence. The primitive language opens the other path of morality. About the content of the morality once complained, language is the moral mission. Kind words can be good. Therefore, along with the generation of moral language, moral cognition and moral evaluation occur, this are the landmark event in the process of the origin of morality. Myth and language have isomorphism. It is the carrier of the inheritance of memory, and the main tools of morality transmission and finalizing the system. Through audio language and the spread of the collective, the human good moral expectations are extended and continued.In the fusion process of primitive thinking, totem and taboo, sorcery, divination and sacrifice, and myth, the force of habit has been to implement. In developing cource, custom has the prototype of moral code, so it has been gradually morality. The force of habit and traditional fear have made the custom abide by primitive man. In practice, morality has been implemented from heteronomy to autonomy.So morality takes the form of primitive religion and custom in the beginning. Gradually morality produces a departure from them. Morality no longer shows totem, taboo, sorcery, divination and sacrifice, myth and custom, and it becomes itself. The practice of human society is prerequisite of morality. With the awakening of consciousness of human reason, the divine factor of a primitive society slowly fades, moralty never need the lives of worship, covenant of taboo, ceremony of sorcery, divination and sacrifice, witch communicating to God, popularity of myth. Moral comes from the authority of God to the secular world. Meanwhile, morality gets rid of secularization and narrowness of the shell of custom, thus morality occurs.更多还原