【作者】 何红中；

【导师】 惠富平；

【作者基本信息】 南京农业大学 ， 科学技术史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 “粟”属禾本科狗尾草属一年生草本,栽培粟的学名是Setaria italica Beauv.,由狗尾草(Setaria viridis)人工驯化而来,中国北方俗称“谷子”,脱壳加工后称“小米”,南方则通称“小米”。中国是世界上粟种植面积最大的国家,世界上90%以上的粟栽培于中国,其次是印度和前苏联；日本、朝鲜、阿富汗、伊朗、美国、加拿大,以及罗马尼亚、波兰、澳大利亚和南非等国家也有少量栽培。中国是世界栽培粟的起源中心,有着最为悠久的种植历史,拥有最丰富的生产与利用经验。关于粟的起源中心问题,在早期的学者中是有争议的,但现在无论是从遗传关系、野生分布、考古遗存、栽培粟本土特征,还是从语言学、民族学方面的证据,都证明粟是在中国最早被驯化的。但在具体起源地问题上尚有争议,至今未能达成一致意见,目前只能说粟的起源中心在中国北方地区。至于粟作究竟起源于平原还是山地,本文从原始农业起源于山地说,即认为粟作农业发端于山地边缘,这符合中国粟遗存的分布特点,而且世界范围内的农业遗存规律也支持这一结论。关于粟的起源时间问题,根据全球冰期退却的时间判定,我国黄河流域大概在距今1.2万年前有条件从事种植的尝试,而我国北方地区有7500-8000年前粟作遗存的发现,而且这些地区的农耕已经有了相当长的发展期,具备了简单的生产、加工及储藏能力。另外,这一时期温度的升高又改善了环境和定居生活条件。所以,有理由判断中国粟作农业起源的时间当在距今10000年前左右。目前我国共有近60处左右粟的遗存,从空间分布上看,黄河中上游地区占有绝对优势,可以称作一类粟作区；下游的山东、江苏、安徽以及东三省,可以看作是两个二类或次要粟作区；台湾、西藏和云南只有零星的发现,属于我国的第三类粟作区。但如果从时代上来看,以磁山和裴李岗为代表的中原地区、以内蒙古赤峰兴隆沟为代表的东北地区,发现的粟遗存是目前我国最早的,处于粟作的第一层次区；东方大汶口文化、西方马家窑文化、北方红山文化发现的粟处于第二层次区；而边远地区,包括新疆、西藏、云南、台湾等地发现的粟都是新石器时代晚期,则属于粟作的第三层区。关于粟在世界上的传播,学界的观点是基本一致的,即世界上的栽培粟基本上都是由有中国外传的。而对于粟在国内的传播,一般认为：粟的传播以黄河中上游为中心,向西传到新疆地区,向东北传到吉、辽地区,向西南传到西藏、云南地区,向东南传到东南沿海和台湾地区。中国栽培粟的历史非常悠久,至少可追溯到新石器时代中期,但在这八千多年漫长岁月里,粟作经历了一个演进过程。史前粟作经历了由萌芽和形成、初步发展直至发达与兴盛的过程,并在新石器时代晚期取代了黍,成为北方最主要的粮食作物。而进入有史时期以后,粟作经历了由原始到传统的过渡,并经两汉到魏晋南北朝时达到繁盛,在这一时期粟位居“五谷”之首,在产量上也由早期的90斤提高到120斤左右。但中唐以后这种格局被打破,稻逐渐代替了粟在粮食作物中的首要地位,麦也紧紧跟上,与粟处于同等地位了。而至宋元时期,水稻在的主导地位完全确立,麦的地位也逐渐超过了粟,这样原来以粟、麦为主的粮食作物结构,便为稻、麦为主的粮食作物结构所代替了。之后粟作逐步走向衰落,直至明清时期被作为救荒作物。中国古代粟的名称繁多,且在命名上颇为混乱。稷究竟是粟还是黍(穄)?曾是千余年来悬而未决的问题,但越来越多的证据都说明稷就是粟。在考察古代粟的名称演变时,本文研究认为：“稷”是粟在商周时期的别称,但战国时已不常用,至西汉时则逐渐隐去。“禾”本为粟的原始象形字,后可引申作谷物总名,且这两种用法一直延续至清代,但战国秦汉时是粟的主要称呼,宋代以后南方地区也有专指稻的。“谷”最初被用作谷物的总名,且这种用法一直沿用至今,但最迟至西汉已有称谷为粟的,而魏晋以后则成为粟的普遍称呼。“粟”本义是指谷子的籽实,而且这种用法贯穿整个古代史,但战国秦汉时可泛指谷类籽实,魏晋以后则演化成谷子的专名,即可指植株也可指籽实,唐代以后还可以专指稻。另外,粢、粱、秫、(?)、芑也属于粟,或是祭祀之物或是特殊品种。中国粟的种植历史悠久、地域广阔,在近万年的漫长岁月里,经过不断地自然和人工选择,还培育出了许多不同的品种。其中有几百个品种见诸于文献：《诗经》、《管子》、《齐民要术》、《授时通考》、明清地方志、《马首农言》、《救荒简易书》等。这些品种常常连续几百、上千年,它们保留了古代粟的遗传基因,对于抢救和保护种质、培育新的品种,具有重要的传承作用。中国古代粟的栽培经验丰富,主要包括了耕作制度、整地播种、田间管理、收获等,其主要特点可归纳为以下几点：一、形成了一套轮作复种和间作套种的种植制度,如《齐民要术》所载几种轮作：绿豆→谷子→黍；大豆→黍→谷子；麦→大豆→谷子；麦→小豆→谷子；小豆→麻→谷子；小豆→瓜→谷子；麦→芜菁→谷子,还有小麦套种谷子、谷子混作豆类、粮菜和粮豆间作谷子。二是形成了深耕细作、因时因地因物的一套耕作技术体系,并讲求深耕、疾耰(或熟耰)以达到防旱保墒的目的。三、重视选育和繁殖良种,积累了丰富的品种资源,讲求谷子的粒选、穗选和混合繁殖,并在播种之前还要进行一次选种。四、掌握种子的播种量、适时播种,并要求把握播种的深度和密度,注意做到合理密植。五、重视积制肥料,合理施肥,培养地力,用养结合,保持土壤肥力常新壮。六、注意兴修农田水利,实行有条件灌溉。七、做好中期田间管理,如注意间苗、补苗及其密度,加强中耕除草及壅土,采用综合方法防治病虫害。另外,作物的收获乃农事之终也,自古要求准确把握收获期,并主张及时速获、适当早收。在具体收获技术方面,原始的办法是直接把成熟的稳头摘下,后来逐渐被收割工具石镰等代替。收割完的谷子还要堆积一段时间,“待干”以后还要脱粒,谷子脱粒时常用连枷工具,用以敲打谷子的穗头脱粒。除了关注耕作栽培技术外,粟的贮藏、加工与利用也很重要。粟的籽粒极耐储藏,远古时主要使用地窖贮粮,后累经发展和演变,逐渐形成了仓、廪、庾等贮藏方式与技术。粟谷的贮藏有临时性和长期性区别,临时性贮藏一般没有固定地点,便于随时取用或转运,其贮存的器具有礤、蒉、筐、笛、畚、笔等。长期性贮藏有固定的场所和构筑,供大量粟谷的长久贮藏。除了有比较好的贮藏设施外,在粟谷的仓廒贮藏过程中,还要考虑到防潮、防热、防雀、防火、防震等问题,并做好日常的防护工作。我国粟谷加工有着悠久的历史,最早的加工方法可能是舂打,之后才发展为碓碾。粟的加工农具主要有：石磨盘、石磨棒、杵臼、碓和碾,最初这些农具的加工动力都是人力,但人们不断探索出新的加工动力,包括了畜力、水力、风力等。另外,粟谷脱粒及舂碓之后,需要分出糠秕和麸皮,过去是用手工来簸扬,效率比较低下,汉代又发明了风扇车(也叫飚扇),极大地提高了工作效率。脱粒后的粟谷又可再加工成小米,除了一般焖饭、煮粥等直接食用外,小米还可制成各种干粮,也是酿酒作醋的重要原料。粟还有药用功能,《本草纲目》就记载了很多药方,这些药方简洁明了、易于操作。粟又是粮草兼用作物,是北方牲畜和家禽的重要饲料。粟是古人赖以生存和繁衍的物质基础,又是政府的财政税收来源之一,还是社会财富多寡的重要象征,关系到经济、政治与社会的稳定。因此,历代统治者都注重粟的储备,并建立专门的管理机构,对于仓库的建设、管理和使用,也都有一套完备的制度。但粟之储备并不完全为“民计”或“邦用”,而往往是为了朝廷统治之需。储备的粟谷主要用于兵资和官俸,其他还有如工程建设、赏赐与酿酒等,不过统治者为了笼络人心,在灾荒时也粜借或赈济百姓。作为古代最主要的食粮之一,粟谷必然参与市场的流通。粟最早流通形式是与其他物品的实物交换,随着商品经济的发展,又逐渐演变成交换的媒介,但最常见的交换形式还是与货币的交换。随着粟谷交换的商品化,后来又产生了粟谷贸易,主要包括官府常平和商贾贩运。由于粮食是人类生存的第一需求,也是从事物质、精神活动的必要前提,所以必须做好粟的安全工作。历代统治者想法设法确保粟的安全,从诸多方面调节粟谷供给与需求的平衡：高度重视粟的生产与管理,甚至形成了“贵粟”思想；鼓励百姓种粟,加强农田水利建设,确保粟谷生产之稳定；在边疆地区大规模屯田,增加社会粟的总供应量；加强对粟谷的管理和调度,以确保储备和使用的安全,通过这些措施维护了社会的稳定。最后,围绕着粟的种植、加工与利用,也形成了丰富多彩的粟作文化。中国很早就有稷神崇拜与祭祀的传统,而且为历代统治者所重视和推行,上自宫廷皇帝、王侯,下至县乡官吏、百姓无不尊而从之。除了稷神崇拜和祭祀外,粟作文化还有更加丰富的内容,包括从粟延伸出来的各种寓意,以及相关的一些谶纬和民俗。粟甚至成为诗歌创作的一部分,或寓情于景或咏物明志。实际上,粟作文化一直贯穿于中华民族的历史长河中,丰富了古代中国人的文化和精神生活,为中国农耕文明的发展、社会思想的进步,也都作出了极其重要的贡献。更多还原

【Abstract】 "Su" was artificially domesticated from Setaria viridis, and its scientific name is "Setaria italica Beauv." It is Popularly named as "Guzi" in the North of China and named as "Xiaomi" after being processed, but Popularly named as "Xiaomi" in the Sorth of China. China is the largest country of Setaria Setaria viridis.’s production in the word, and more than 90% of Setaria italica Beauv. is producted in China. India, the former Soviet Union, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Iran, the United States, Canada, and Romania, Poland, Australia and South Africa also have a small amount of cultivation. China is the center of of Setaria italica Beauv.’s originnig having the most most glorious planting history, and has the most extensive experience in the production and using.About the issue of origin of Setaria italica Beauv., the scholars had the different viewpoints in early time. But with the increasing evidence, Setaria italica Beauv. was Completely proven being domesticated in Chian. But the specific ground of originning was still not jumping to conclusions, so we can only determine the center of Setaria italica Beauv.’s originning in the North of China. As for whether Setaria italica Beauv. was originned in the plains or mountains, This article points out that Setaria italica Beauv. was originned in the edge of mountains. This is also the remains of China’s grain distribution characteristics, and the laws of the world’s agriculture remains also support this. On the origin of time Setaria italica Beauv., China’s Yellow River valley about 12 000 years ago on the conditions employed in the cultivation of the attempt, according to time determine the global glacial retreat. And Setaria italica Beauv. in northern China have made the discovery of remains of 7500～8000 years ago, and farming in these areas already have a long development period, and have a simple production, processing and storage capacity. In addition, during this period the temperature has improved the living environment and human settlement conditions. Therefore, reasonable to assume the agricultural origin of China’s Setaria italica Beauv. should be about 10,000 years ago.The problem on remains and communication path partition of Setaria italica Beauv., the paper also made a detailed study. Currently, there are 60 around the remains of Setaria italica Beauv. in China. From the spatial distribution, the upper reaches of the Yellow River has an absolute advantage, can be called as a class of Setaria italica Beauv. area. Downstream of Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, and the Northeast, can be seen as two type II or secondary areas of Setaria italica Beauv. production. Taiwan, Tibet and Yunnan, was found only sporadic, is China’s third type of grain for area. But if the point of view from time to Magnetic Hill and Peiligang represented in the Central Plains region is the earliest discovered remains of Setaria italica Beauv., it is Setaria italica Beauv.’s first regional. Eastern Dawenkou culture, Western Majiayao culture and the North Hongshan culture found levels of Setaria italica Beauv. in the second decade. Remote regions, including Xinjiang, Tibet, Yunnan, Taiwan, and Setaria italica Beauv. in these areas are found in the late Neolithic Age, these areas belong to the third category of Setaria italica Beauv. production areas. On the spread of poppy in the world, the academic point of view is basically the same, namely that the cultivation of poppy in the world by China rumored. As for the spread of poppy in the country generally believed that: Su spread to the upper reaches of the Yellow River as the center, spread west Xinjiang region, spread to the northeast Jilin and Liaoning Province, southwest spread to Tibet and Yunnan to the southeast reached the southeast coast and Taiwan.China has a long history of poppy cultivation, at least dating back to Neolithic Period. But in this nearly eight thousand long years, Setaria italica Beauv. has undergone a process of development and change. In the Prehistoric period, the prehistoric Setaria italica Beauv. production has undergone germination, formation, to the development and prosperity until the initial development process, and replaced the late Neolithic Setaria italica Beauv., and became the most important food crops in North. However, after entering a period with recorded civilization, Setaria italica Beauv. production has experienced from the original to the transition of traditional agriculture, and by the Han to the Sui and Tang dynasties peak. During this period, Setaria italica Beauv. in the "grain" of total primary position, but also in the yield of 90 kg from the earlier rose to 120 kilograms. But this pattern was broken in the Tang Dynasty, rice is gradually replaced Setaria italica Beauv. grain production in the first position, and wheat followed closely, with the grain in the same status. And to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, rice production in major grain position was fully established, and the status of the wheat gradually over the Setaria italica Beauv.. In this way, the original to Setaria italica Beauv. and wheat-based grain structure, with regard to rice and wheat-based food structure instead. After that, Setaria italica Beauv. gradually decline, until the Ming and Qing dynasties become famine crop.In ancient China, Setaria italica Beauv.’s name is diverse, and the name is rather confusing. What is Setaria italica Beauv. or sorghum (Ji), which was an outstanding issues for more than a thousand years. However, since the eighties of last century, more and more evidence that the Ji is Setaria italica Beauv. When studies the evolution of the history of the name of Setaria italica Beauv., the research paper said:"Ji" is another name of Setaria italica Beauv. in Shang and Zhou dynasties, but not commonly used when the Warring States to the Western Han Dynasty was gradually gone up." Cereal " could have been the original pictograph of Setaria italica Beauv., and later extended the general name for cereal, and the two Usage has continued to the Qing Dynasty. But it as the main name of Setaria italica Beauv. in the Warring States and Han periods, after the Song Dynasty it also refers specifically to rice in the south." Grain " was first used as a general name of cereals, and this usage has being used today, but no later than the Western Han Dynasty it has been known as the Setaria italica Beauv., and it became a common name after Wei and Jin Dynasties. Setaria italica Beauv.’s original meaning means the seed of Setaria italica Beauv., and this usage throughout ancient history. However, when the Warring States Period and Qin and Han Dynasties refers to cereal seed, it evolved into the Setaria italica Beauv.’s special name after the Wei and Jin Dynasties, may refer to plants can also refer to seeds, and it also refers specifically to rice after the Tang Dynasty. In addition, common Setaria italica Beauv., sorghum, Panicum italicum, Men, Panicum miliaceum belong Setaria italica Beauv., or ritual objects or special varieties, which are ritual objects or special varieties. Poppy cultivation in China has a long history and vast territory, during the last years of the long years, through continuous natural and artificial selection, bred a number of different varieties. Including hundreds of varieties found in historical documents, and these documents are the "Book of Songs," "pipe", "Arts for the People", "Book of General timing", "Agriculture made the first horse" and "Simple book famine" and so on. These species are often continuous for hundreds of years or thousands of years, even many varieties have been applied to the today. They retained the genes of ancient Setaria italica Beauv., for rescue and protection of the seed quality, development of new varieties, still has a very important role in transmission.The cultivation experience of ancient Chinese Setaria italica Beauv. is extensive, including farming, seeding and medium-term field management. Its main characteristics can be summarized as follows:First, form a set of multiple cropping and intercropping rotation cultivation system. Such as "Arts for the People," contained several rotation: green beans→Setaria italica Beauv.→broomcorn; soybean→broomcorn→Setaria italica Beauv.; wheat→soybean→Setaria italica Beauv.; wheat→bean→Setaria italica Beauv.; bean→hemp→Setaria italica Beauv.; bean→Guatemala→Setaria italica Beauv.; wheat→turnip→Setaria italica Beauv., and wheat intercropping Setaria italica Beauv., Setaria italica Beauv. mixed beans, grain Setaria italica Beauv. intercropping with vegetables and beans. Second, form a set of deep plowing secret agents and local conditions of farming technology system, and the emphasis on deep plowing, harrow illness (or cooked harrow) to achieve the purpose of soil moisture and drought. Third, attach importance to selection and breeding seeds, accumulated rich variety of resources, such as the stress of Setaria italica Beauv. grain selection, spike sorting and mixed breed, and also to conduct a selection before planting. Fourth, master the seed sowing rate and timely planting, and required to grasp the depth and density of planting, and pay attention to be reasonably close planting. Fifth, pay attention to product and manufacture fertilizers and fertilize rationally. And cultivate fertility, combined with support to maintain soil fertility often new and strong. Sixth, pay attention to irrigating farmland and water conservancy facilities, and carry out conditional irrigation. Seventh, do the mid-field management, such as attention to thinning, fill the gaps with seedlings and its density, enhance soil cultivation, weed and obstruct, and integrated approach to combating diseases and pests. Sowing and harvesting is a major event of crops, and the harvest is the end of farming. Ancient agricultural book have a lot of records for Setaria italica Beauv.’s harvest, whether it is harvest season, and tools, or take ear threshing methods and techniques, have devoted more detailed, and provides the basic technical experience for Setaria italica Beauv.’s harvest. Since ancient times, demands an accurate grasp of the harvest of Setaria italica Beauv., and called for quick and timely given, the appropriate early closing. On specific harvest technology, the original approach is to pick the mature ear, and later gradually replaced by harvesting tools such as stone sickles. Harvested Setaria italica Beauv. also accumulates over time, and threshing after "to be dry".In addition to specially concerned about the farming and cultivation techniques, grain storage, processing and utilization are also important. Setaria italica Beauv.’s fruit can be stored very long time, when it is mainly used in the ancient cellar storage, the latter through the development and evolution, gradually formed a warehouse, Lin, Yu and other storage methods and technology. Setaria italica Beauv.’s storage has the difference between temporary and long-term. Temporary storage generally had no fixed location, and it was accessed or transferred easily at any time. Its device has bamboo basket storage, Kui, baskets, bamboo basket and the basket and so on. Long-term storage has a fixed place and built for the long-term storage of large amount of Setaria italica Beauv.. During warehousing Setaria italica Beauv., in addition to have good storage facilities, but also take into account the humidity, heat, anti-bird, fire, earthquake and so on, to make daily protection work. Setaria italica Beauv. processing has a long history in our country, the first processing method may Chung fight, and later developed into pestle grinding. Setaria italica Beauv. processing tools are:stone plates, stone bar, Mortar and pestle, pestle and grind, most of them still used in rural areas in the north. The initial processing power of these tools are all human, but people are constantly exploring new processing power, including animal power, water, wind, etc.. In addition, grain threshing and Chung pestle, to need to separate the chaff and bran, to winnow by hand in the past, relatively lower efficiency. People invented the fan car (also known as Yang fan or fan car) in the Han dynasty, greatly improved work efficiency. After threshing, Setaria italica Beauv. can be further processed into Setaria italica Beauv.. In addition to the general stew rice, porridge and other direct consumption, the Setaria italica Beauv. can also be made into a variety of field rations. It is also important raw material for wine and vinegar. It occupies an important position in the ancient food consumption. Setaria italica Beauv. also features medicinal and forage, such as "Compendium of Materia Medica" records a lot of prescriptions, these prescriptions concise, easy to operate, guiding significance for clinical medicine. Su is also used along with the crop seed and straw. Planting Setaria italica Beauv., in addition to harvest grain, but also have a large number of aspartate and chaff, which is the important feed of livestock and poultry in the north.Setaria italica Beauv. was ancient material basis for survival and reproduction, and it is the important source of government’s tax revenue, or an important symbol of the amount of social wealth. And it is related to economic, political and social stability. Therefore, rulers paid great attention to the accumulation of grain, and set up a special organization for the warehouse construction, management and use, which has a relatively complete system. However, the accumulation of grain is not entirely for the "people meter" or "state use", but often for the need of court ruling, in order to achieve long-term stability of the purpose of the King. Accumulation of grain is mainly used for military and official pension funds, others are such as construction, reward and wine, etc.. But the rulers in order to win over people’s minds, they also sold or relief to the people when famine. As one of the important grain of an ancient, Setaria italica Beauv. must participate in market liquidity. The flow of the earliest forms of Setaria italica Beauv. is that Setaria italica Beauv. exchange with other physical items. With the development of the ancient commodity economy, it gradually evolved into medium of exchange. Actually performs the functions of money, but the most common form is that exchange with the currency. With the gradual exchange of commercial Setaria italica Beauv., appeared Setaria italica Beauv. trade later, including two ways of Official Chang Ping and merchants trafficking. Because food is the first demand of human existence, and is also a prerequisite for engaging in physical and mental activities, the work of the safety of Setaria italica Beauv. must be done well. Successive rulers used various methods to ensure the safety of Setaria italica Beauv., and regulated the balance of supply and demand from various aspects:Attaches great importance to grain production and management, and even formed a "valuable Setaria italica Beauv." thinking; Encourage people planting Setaria italica Beauv., and enhancing farmland water conservancy construction, to ensure the stability of the production of Setaria italica Beauv.; Implementing large-scale Farming in the border areas, increase the total supply of social Setaria italica Beauv.; Strengthen the management and regulation of Setaria italica Beauv. to ensure its security of accumulation and use.Finally, around the cultivation, processing and utilization of Setaria italica Beauv., has also created a variety of Setaria italica Beauv. culture. In China Setaria italica Beauv. had a long tradition of worship and sacrifice, which was attached importance and implementation by rulers. The princes and monarchs from the court down to the county and township officials and the people all followed with. In addition worship and ritual, the Setaria italica Beauv. cultures are more rich content, including variety of moral extended out from the Setaria italica Beauv., as well as some related Divination and folk. And even becoming a part of poetry, or hidden their feelings in scenery, or praise things and show ambition. These cultures run through the development of Chinese history, enrich Chinese cultural and spiritual life in ancient times, and made a vital contribution to the development of Chinese farming culture and the of progress social civilization.更多还原