【作者】 方立松；

【导师】 惠富平；

【作者基本信息】 南京农业大学 ， 科学技术史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 传统水车,即人们通常所称的“翻车”和“筒车”,是一种能从江湖河塘等地表水中不间断持续汲水的大型农业机具,主要用于高地提水、低田排水。由于某种程度上,传统农业是灌溉农业,所以车灌在传统农业生产中的地位十分重要。在我国南方稻作区,水车是家家必需之物。人们用它进行排灌,来调节和改变农田水分状况和区域水利条件,达到符合发展农业生产的要求。通过排灌,一方面扩大水田灌溉面积,实现增产,另一方面减轻水旱灾害损失,达到保产。传统水车在促进农业经济发展的同时,自身也不断发展与完善,具有以下四个特点：一是产生时间早。距今有一千八九百年,比西方水车早一千五百年。二是种类繁多,形制复杂,动力多样。为适应各地水文、地理等自然条件的复杂性和农业生产不断发展的需求,传统水车因地制宜发展、形成一个庞大的家族体系,翻车有手摇翻车、脚踏翻车、牛转翻车、水转翻车,筒车有水转筒车、驴转筒车、高转筒车、水转高车。动力除人力外,还有畜力、水力、风力。传统水车是中国传统灌溉器具的代表。三是应用广泛、推广力度大。不仅在南方稻作区普及,而且扩张到北方,还远播海外。四是经济效益显著。水车技术的进步,能直接转化为生产力,对农业生产的促进作用巨大。传统水车最早为东汉末年毕岚创制、三国马钧改良,时称翻车,为后世龙骨水车之前身。翻车的出现开创了人类从江湖河渠中汲水的新纪元,预示着灌溉史上水车时代的到来。翻车随南迁的移民来到南方,成为南方水田排灌的重要器具。唐宋时期,随着南方经济中心的确立,翻车在南方日益普及,尤其在平原水乡大显身手,为南方稻作经济发展发挥了重要作用。筒车产生于唐代,是一种依靠水流转动的灌溉器具。水力的利用,是水车技术发展的第二个高峰。宋以后,筒车开始兴盛,在南方一些山地丘陵水力资源丰富的地区得到推广,成为山地灌溉之利器。宋元时期,传统水车经过不断演进、定型,渐成体系。明清时期,传统水车进一步完善,出现了两极化现象：一种是小型化的拔车；一种是大型化的风力翻车和兰州水车。风力的出现把传统水车技术推向了第三个高峰。近代以来,传统水车发展停滞不前,在先进的新式排灌机具面前渐显颓势,虽经上世纪五六十年代的改良,性能有所改善,但终在现代化潮流的冲击下,被新动力排灌机械取而代之,于八九十年代渐渐消失在田间地头,垄断了近两千年农田排灌的水车时代就此终结。传统水车内部结构复杂,制作工艺难度大,“关楗颇多,必用木匠可易成造”,它体现了古代劳动人民的造物智慧,内含深刻的古代中国人的设计思想,即随地所宜；工役俱省；善假于物,凭智巧先；一器多用。通过对传统水车结构设计、工作原理、材料工艺、视觉设计等的解剖和分析,可以了解传统水车的技术信息,而对每一种水车的工作原理图、三视图、整体结构图、局部图等的大量绘制,则使水车形象更直观和具体。传统水车是人们生产生活重要的汲水工具,用途广泛,它不仅普遍运用于灌溉与排涝等农业生产领域,而且在济漕保运、沿海制盐等非农业方面也发挥了重要的作用。传统水车虽功效显著,但在实际应用中灌溉能力、灌溉效率存有差异。总体上,无论从能力还是效率上,筒车为最高,其次是风力翻车和畜力翻车,再次是脚踏翻车,最后是手摇翻车。明清时期是传统水车推广力度最大、应用最普及的时期,这不仅得益于良好的自然环境,而且与当时的社会环境密不可分,如蓄、引、提一体化；水车与各种水利设施紧密配合；水车作为灌溉过程的终端技术得到重视和应用；一些地方官把水车作为惠民措施积极推广等。这一时期传统水车分布区域之广是前所未有的,在我国东南、中南、西南、北方等广大区域里都有水车应用与推广的大量文献记载,特别在江浙、两湖、两广、四川等地,不仅各式水车都有用武之地,而且形成了区域特色。随着稻作区的扩大,水车在北方也得到了大力推广,尤以京津地区和西北兰州地区最为典型。传统水车是中国古代科学技术的一个缩影,它在风力出现后并未进一步发展到机械动力,而长时期陷入停滞时期。用技术传播理论分析水车技术传播链中给体(木匠)、中介体(地方官员)、接收体(农户)三个主要环节之间的关系,发现在封建社会里三者关系中的先天性不足,即给体和接受体过于弱小,中介体过于强大。官强民弱使水车发展缺乏自身内在动力。传统水车对社会与百姓生活的渗透与影响是多方面的和复杂的。水车所有权和水车资源调剂,反映了水车拥有权背后的农村社会阶层属性和传统社会的人际特征。关于水车的各种传说以及水车生活形成的种种习俗与禁忌,揭示了千百年来水车对百姓生活、信仰、价值观的影响,如稻作区广泛存在的水车崇拜是一种龙崇拜,反映了中国人世俗信仰和实用的价值观；在水车上的写字习俗寄托了农家对水车带来丰收的美好愿望；水车号子、女人车水、水车鼓是水车在使用过程中产生的习俗,淋漓尽致地反映了江南农家特有的车水生活原貌。水车与文化的关系是互动的,一方面,水车对生产生活的渗透是深层次的,形成了特有的水车文化现象；另一方面,水车文化反映了传统农耕社会的生活和价值取向。从机械史角度来看,水车结构复杂,有连杆曲柄结构、轮轴齿轮机构、链结构、自动调节结构等,体现了中国古代机械的特点,反映中国古代科学技术的先进性和成就,主要表现在技术的创新性、综合性、互补性上；从动力上看,由人力、畜力逐渐上升到水力和风力自然能的应用,几乎达到我国古代动力应用的最高峰,代表了我国古代在动能利用上的卓越成就；在精耕细作农具体系中,水车作为水田农具体系之子系统,代表了中国古代灌溉器具的最高水平,难以替代,它与耕种等其他农具系列互相配合,发挥各自作用,共同为农业生产提供技术支撑。中国传统水车在属于它的那个时代,走在世界的前列。中国是传统水车技术的发源地。唐以后水车不断外传,东传朝鲜、日本,南传东南亚,西传西方。传统水车的外传促进了当地农业生产的发展,改善了当地人的生活。是古代中国对世界农业文明的独特贡献,在中外科技交流史上占有一席之地。传统水车原先的灌溉功能消失后,人们把它作为旅游景观来开发,把它当作农业时代的符号在现代媒介中显现,传统水车作为民俗文化的重要内容,重新焕发出一种新的生命力,凸现出一种与众不同的审美价值。我们研究水车的目的,不是推崇传统水车体现的技术内涵和技术高度,不是返回到传统民间社会生活状态下,那种自给自足的自然经济生活方式,而是寻觅传统的历史遗产对于现代社会的有益启示,毕竟现代科技的进步已使它逐渐成为一道景观。这种启示可以总结为三点：一是技术的进步只有结合自然环境才能焕发出持久的生命力；二是合理开发利用自然能源；三是传统水车的核心文化价值是人与自然、社会的和谐。更多还原

【Abstract】 The traditional waterwhee mentioned in this paper is an equivalent of "rollover" and "tube waterwheel" normally called by the general people. It is a large-scale farming tool that can draw water continuously from the ground-surface water in the rivers, lakes, or pools, and is mainly applied to lifting water to the high ground or drain water in the low-lying farmland. Due to the reason that the traditional agriculture rely heavily on irrigation, waterwheel irrigation had played a very important role in agricultural production; especially in the crop-planted area in the south, where the waterwheel is an indispensable tool for every family. People always use the waterwheel to drain and irrigate, so that the water distribution and regional water conservancy can be improved, and the goal of promoting the agriculture production can be achieved. Through irrigation and drainage, the irrigation area of the paddy field can be expanded and the yield can be increased; on the other hand, the loss caused by the flood and the drought would be alleviated and a certain of amount of yield can be ensured. While promoting the agriculture economy, the traditional waterwheel has been developing and improving itself continuously, thus possesses four distinct features: firstly, it emerged at a very early time. The history of the waterwheel is between 1800 years and 1900 years, which is 1,500 years earlier than the invention of the Western waterwheel. Secondly, the traditional waterwheel has a variety of types, a variety of forms, and is driven by a variety of powers. In order to adapt to the complex hydrological and geographical conditions in different regions, as well as to meet the demand of agriculture production that is developing continuously, the traditional waterwheel has been adapted to various local conditions, and has developed into a "big family":for the rollover, there have hand-driven rollover, treading rollover, ox-driven rollover, water-driven rollover; for the tube waterwheel, there have water-driven tube waterwheel, donkey-driven waterwheel, lofty-drawing tube waterwheel, as well as vertical water-lifting waterwheel; for the powers that drive the waterwheel, there are animal power, water power, wind power apart from man power. In a word, the traditional waterwheel can be considered a representative of the traditional irrigation tool. Third, the waterwheel has been applied in a wide range of areas, and the force to popularize it is quite strong. Besides popularization in the crop-planted area in the south, the waterwheel has been applied to many northern regions, even some oversea nations; Fourth, the economical effects brought forth by the waterwheel is obvious: the advancement of waterwheel technology can transformed into productivity, thus exert a great influence on agriculture production.The traditional waterwheel was firstly invented by Bi Nan at the end of the Han Dynasty, and was improved by Ma Jun in the Three Kingdoms period. It was then called "rollover", which is the predecessor of the later dragon-bone waterwheel. The invention of waterwheel had made a new epoch, in which human began to draw water from the rivers, lakes, pools or channels, and it also indicates the coming of "waterwheel age". The rollover was brought to the south by the immigrants from the northern region, and has become an important tool for the drainage and irrigation in the paddy fields of the southern region. During the Tang and Song Dynasty, with the establishment of the south-China economical center, the application of the rollover had been gradually popularized in the southern region, especially in the plain regions as well as regions of rivers and lakes, and has played an important role in the development of the southern crop-field economy. The tube waterwheel, which was driven by the water flow, was invented in the Tang Dynasty. The utilization of the water power was a symbol of the second apex of waterwheel development. Since the Song Dynasty, the tube waterwheel began to prosper, and had been popularized in some mountainous and hilly regions with abundant water resources, where it had become a powerful tool for irrigation. During the Song and Yuan Dynasty, the family of traditional waterwheel becomes systematic after a period of evolvement. During the Ming and Qing Dynasty, the traditional waterwheel had been improved further and developed into several types:one is the small-scale waterwheel run by hand, and the other is large-scale ,wind-driven rollover and waterwheel used solely in Lanzhou. The application of wind power had led the waterwheel technology to the third apex. Since the modern times, the development of traditional waterwheel came to a standstill; the waterwheel was comparably backward in the presence of the new irrigating and draining tools that were more advanced. Though in the 1950s and the 1960s the waterwheel had been improved in practical functions, eventually it was replaced by the new-type irrigating and draining tools under the circumstance of modernization and disappear from farmlands in the 1980s and the 1990s. And the "waterwheel age", which has dominated the farmland irrigation and drainage of nearly 2000 years, came to an end.The traditional waterwheel has a sophisticated internal structure, therefore it is of great difficulty to manufacture one, only depends on capenters. The invention of waterwheel is a manifestation for the wisdom of the ancient people, and their ideas of designing had been embodied in the manufacturing process of waterwheels, i.e., that is, make decisions according to conditions; save labor force; practice one’s wisdom; explore more functions from one tool. The paper, through dissecting and analyzing the structure design, work principle, materials and techniques as well as visual design of the traditional waterwheel, has shown to the readers the relevant technical information of the traditional waterwheel. The presence of a great number of schematic diagrams, orthographic views, overall structure diagrams as well as partial structure diagrams in the paper has also made the image of waterwheel more intuitive and concrete.The waterwheel is an essential tool for drawing water in production and in daily life. The waterwheels have a wide-ranging functions, besides extensive application in agriculture production, i.e., irrigation and flood draining, it also helps a lot in some non-agricultural applications, such as grain-transporting by water and salt producing along the sea. Though the traditional waterwheel possesses an excellent efficiency, there are differences in the aspects of irrigating capability and irrigating for different types of waterwheels. In terms of capability or efficiency, the tube waterwheel is the most excellent, the wind-driven and the animal-driven waterwheel is the second excellent, then is the treading waterwheel, and the most inferior one is hand-driven waterwheel.The Ming and Qing Dynasty is a period in which the force of promotion for the waterwheel reached a peak and the waterwheel had been applied the most extensively, which was not only caused by the good natural environment, but also closely related with the social circumstances then. During that period, the processes of conserving water, drawing water and lifting water had been integrated as a single process; the waterwheel was used together with other irrigating tools; The waterwheel was applied and attached great importance of as the terminal technique of the irrigating technology; some local officials also took effort to promote the application of waterwheel and consider it a measure that would benefit the people. During that period, the number of areas where the traditional waterwheel had been applied was unprecedented comparing with the previous eras: abundant historical materials have shown that the application and promotion of the waterwheel existed in the southeast, the mid-east, the southwest, and the northern region in China during that period. In the regions of Jiangsu and Zhejiang province, Hubei and Hunan province, Guangdong and Guangxi province, as well as Sichuan province, each type of waterwheel had been applied, and the regional features of waterwheel application had been formed. With the expansion of crop-planted area, the waterwheel had also been promoted with great force in the northern regions, and among them the most typical is Beijing-Tianjin region and Lanzhou. The waterwheel reveals the general condition of the ancient Chinese science and technology. After the wind-driven waterwheel has been invented, it hadn’t been achieved to the machine-driven stage in a long period. The paper tries to discuss the inter-relationships between the offerer (the carpenter), the medium (the government officials), and the receiver (the peasants), as well as the inborn deficiencies this relationship has, that is, the offerer and the receiver were too frail, while the medium was too strong, so there was a lack of motivation for the waterwheel to further develop.The effects and infiltration the waterwheel had for the society and life of ordinary people is complex. The ownership of waterwheels, as well as the distribution of waterwheel resources has revealed the characteristics of social classes and in ancient villages as well as the characteristics of inter-personal relationships in the traditional society; The various legends as well as the customs and emotional symbols formed in utilization of waterwheels has revealed the influence the waterwheel had exerted on the life, beliefs, and sense of value of the ordinary people. For example, the worship for the waterwheel existing extensively in the crop-growing regions can be regarded as a kind of "Dragon Worship", which reflected the social belief and practical sense of value of traditional Chinese people; the custom of writing on the waterwheels implied that the peasants had a strong wish for the waterwheels to lead a good harvest; the waterwheel chant, women drawing water, and waterwheel drums are all customs formed in the process of utilizing waterwheels, and they all reflected to the fullest degree the farming life with waterwheels as an essential part in the areas south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. There was an interactive relationship between the waterwheels and the traditional culture. On one hand, the waterwheel has an in-depth and comprehensive infiltration to people’s production and daily life, thus forming a unique waterwheel culture; on the other hand, the society had marked a symbol on the waterwheel, through it the life and sense of value in traditional farming society can be reflected.From the perspective of machine history, the waterwheel had a complicated mechanism, including crank mechanism, wheel and axle mechanism, link mechanism and self-adapted mechanism, etc., all of which had embodied the characteristics of ancient Chinese machine and reflected the advanceness and progresses achieved by ancient Chinese science and technology, mainly in the aspects of the originality, comprehensiveness, and the complementariness of the technology; from the perspective of powers that drived the waterwheels, the rise from man-driven and animal-driven waterwheel to water-driven and wind-driven waterwheel had marked the peak level of motivation application, while representing the outstanding progress the Chinese ancient people had made in this aspect. Among the farming tools used for intensive cultivation, the waterwheel is the most advanced of the irrigating tools and could hardly be replaced by other equivalents. The plough and sowing tools and the waterwheels had played a specific role in farming activities respectively, and they had offered a strong technical support for agriculture production through cooperating with each other. Chinese waterwheel, compared with the farming tools used in the other parts of the world in the same era, can be regarded as an advanced one. China can be regarded as the birthplace of waterwheel technology. Since the Tang Dynasty, the technology of waterwheels had been spread to Korea and Japan in the eastern direction; to the southeastern Asian countries in the southern direction; and to the Western countries in the western direction. The waterwheel had promoted the local agriculture and made a certain contribution for the global agriculture civilization, therefore it had a proper place in the history of science and technology communication. Though the function of irrigation for the waterwheel has declined, people still make it a scenery spot as well as a symbol of the agriculture era, and show it in the modern medium. As an essential part of the traditional culture, the waterwheel re-displays a new kind of vigor as well as an aesthetic value that is unique: one is the visual beauty on the external; the other is technical beauty on the internal.Why do I make the waterwheel as the topic of my research? I don’t mean to praise highly the technical connotation and technical level the traditional waterwheel has reflected; nor do I mean to recall the self-sufficient economy in the traditional society; My goal is to seek the valuable enlightenment the waterwheel has for the modern society, due to the reason that the progress of modern technologies are making it a scenery. This enlightenment can be summarized as three main points: first, the technical advancement can shine a lasting vigor only when it has been combined with natural environment; secondly, the natural resources should be exploited and utilized reasonably; third, the core value of the traditional waterwheel is the harmony between people, nature and society.更多还原