【作者】 窦艳秋；

【导师】 李平生；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中国古代史， 2009， 硕士

【摘要】 海纳百川,有容乃大。中华民族自古以来就有善于向他人学习的优良传统。晋文公称霸之前,在诸侯各国游历学习十九年；赵武灵王为使自己的国家强盛,曾经微服私访秦国；春秋战国时期,贤人才子如曾子、左丘明、吴起、乐羊子等,都以游学闻名。虚怀若谷的学习,成就了他们的事业。但这种学习只是局限在大一统的中国文化范围内。随着历史发展,居于世界先进地位的中华文明,成为了各国学习的对象。汉代京城就有许多匈奴弟子来此学习。唐朝时期,中国的文化发展达到鼎盛,各国仰慕,周边国家纷纷前来学习,日本更是十三次派遣“遣唐使”来长安。中国成了先进文化的“输出国”。“天朝大国”的地位让人自豪。然而,历史进入清朝初期时,“闭关锁国”的对外政策,隔断了中外科技、文化和贸易的交流,使中国处于一种与世隔绝的状态,而此时的西方工业文明却进入了快速发展的时期。与世隔绝,夜郎自大,整个清朝仍然陶醉在“天朝大国”的理念中,认为大清之外,皆为“蛮夷”。这种心理,致使清政府对快速发展的西方文明视而不见,先进的东方文明在这种与世隔绝的状态中逐渐落伍。随着西方传教士的进入,西方文化的传播,人们的视野开始不再限于自己所谓的中央之国,个别中国教徒开始在西方传教士的引导下,走出国门,留学海外,这批神学留学生便成为中国最早的出国留学生。文化的“输出国”从此变成了文化的“输入国”。但作为统治者的清廷,却没有对外来文化引起足够的重视与反思,更没有认识到它为西方带来的经济快速发展,以及落后就要挨打的潜在危机。整个社会对西方文明也是一种不屑的蔑视。这些客观的原因,导致了清政府在早期的对外交流上,只是被动地接受,不可能主动地派遣留学生出国学习。由于没有适合留学事业发展的土壤,此时的留学只是一种自发的、零星的、民间式的萌芽状态的留学。留学的管理政策也就自然地处于了一种缺失的状态。但萌芽状态的留学似涓涓细流,顽强地显示了世界文化交流终将无法阻挡的历史趋势。鸦片战争的失败,一系列不平等条约的签订,让中国处于亡国的边缘。清政府开始被迫审视自己的教育体制以及国家落后的现实,并接受容闳、李鸿章等人的思想,为救亡图存,开始重视留学事业。十九世纪七十年代一百二十名赴美幼童的留学,开创了中国公费留学的先河。之后,出于加强海防、培养军事、外交人才的需要,清政府再向英、法、德等欧洲国家派遣留学生。这一时期留学生的派遣国大都集中在欧美国家。究其原因,主要是慑于西人船坚炮利之威胁而希图自强御侮之故。但由于路远费繁,选派规模受到制约,留学人数增长非常缓慢。随着留学事业的发展,留学的管理政策在这一阶段不断探索调整,在出国的选拔,海外的管理以及回国后的录用等方面制定出一系列的相应的管理规定。留学的管理政策开始形成并在实践中不断发展。甲午中日战争之后至1911年,是清政府留学教育发展兴盛阶段。日本留学、庚款留美带动了留学事业的高涨。随着留学队伍的不断扩大,留学管理政策也在实践中不断总结,《约束游学章程》、《鼓励游学毕业生章程》和《自行酌办立案章程》等一系列的《章程》相继颁布,使留学管理政策进入到一个更加完善的制度化阶段。官派留学的管理更加规范,自费留学得到鼓励,而独树一帜的归国考试录用制度,第一次把象征知识和地位的“进士”、“举人”等身份授予优秀留学生,极大地提升了留学生的社会地位。从留学管理政策的缺失、发展,到完善,经历了一个漫长的过程。在这个过程中清政府自始至终坚持“中学为体,西学为用”留学指导思想和“留学选拔和海外管理相结合”的原则,从而保证了留学人才的可用性。留学管理政策的不断完善,推动了留学事业的发展,同时也为国家培养了大量的国际型人才。而留学生的选拔、管理、及归国录用政策对当今的留学管理也提供了很多的启示。海外留学生的成功与否,与留学生的选拔资格密切相关,选拔越严格,留学的成效就越大。因此,为了培养国家发展所需要的人才,新时期留学生的选拔资格较之以往更加严格规范。适应新的形势,对留学生的管理政策也日渐灵活,已经从过去单纯的管理逐步转变到以服务为主的服务性管理。对于学业有成的留学生,一方面调整政策吸引他们归国发展,另一方面鼓励留学生海外就业,鼓励他们把立足国内和立足国外相结合,以各种不同的方式为祖国的现代化服务。留学生已经成为推动社会全面进步的生力军。更多还原

【Abstract】 The sea accepts hundreds of rivers and brooks, thus it’s huge with its full tolerance. China, from the ancient times, has the excellent tradition in learning from others. JIN Wen Gong (king of Country Jin in ancient China, DOB 697BC-628BC) became the overlord after he had traveled and studied extensively in other countries for 19 years. Wu Ling Wang (king of Country Zhao in ancient China, DOB 340BC-295BC) led his country to become a superpower after he traveled and studied secretly in Country Qin. During the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period (770BC-476BC) in China, a lot of sages were famous for their travel and study beyond their homeland, such as Zengzi, Zuo Qiuming, Wu Qi, Yue Yangzi. All of the above mentioned people were extremely open-minded in learning from others, thus they accomplished their outstanding achievements later, though their destinations were all within greater China.The civilization of ancient China became the example for other countries to learn from at that time. Many Huns were sent to study in the capital of Han Dynasty. History witnessed China’s zenith in Tang Dynasty, with a lot of foreigners coming to study, such as 13 groups of ambassadors (students) form Japan. China made itself a super country in outputting its culture and civilization with full of pride.However, pride is always accompanied with prejudice. Early Qing Dynasty of China closed its door to the world, isolated itself to the world of progress in technology, economy, and culture; while the westerners entered their industry revolution with a fast speed. At that time, Qing Dynasty was totally intoxicated in its heavenly situation, regarding all of the other nationals as illiterate aboriginals. This extreme arrogance made the whole dynasty close its eyes to the world civilization, China, with a history of advanced oriental culture, was then left far behind other countries. As long as the western missionaries and culture entered China, Chinese people began to get to know the alien representations, no longer fixing their eyes on themselves and their so called "centre of the world". Some Chinese Christians went out to study theology abroad with the guidance of the missionaries and became the first group of Chinese overseas students. Subsequently, China fell into a country of culture input from output. However, the Supreme Authority of Qing Dynasty didn’t pay enough attention to the alien civilization, let alone realizing its function in promoting western development and the potential crisis of being attacked due to backwardness, it continued to look down upon western civilization. Thus the Dynasty did nothing but to receive this kind of cultural exchange in a passive way, let alone sending Chinese students abroad actively. Sporadic Chinese study abroad initiated by the grassroots indicated the absence of national regulations in supervision. But this was the beginning of Chinese overseas study and showed its great potential in exchanging with other civilizations.China walked to its cutting edge with Opium War and a series of unequal treaties with western invaders. Qing Dynasty began to reconsider its education system and the reality of being far than less developed. The Authority eventually accepted Li Hong Zhang (Li Hung-Chang, prime minister) and Yung Wing’s (first Chinese graduated from Yale University in the US) suggestions and paid some attention to the Chinese overseas study program, and thus sponsored 120 Chinese teenagers to study in the United States of America, this became the initial program in China’s history.The program of Chinese overseas study developed pretty fast during 1894 (First Sino-Japanese War) to 1911, the main destinations were Japan and the United States. While the policy and regulations concerned were also promulgated, implemented and improved, such as the Constitution in Regulating Chinese Study Abroad, the Constitution in Encouraging Chinese Students Graduating from Overseas and the Constitution in Chinese Study Abroad with the Self-sponsorship. Therefore, Chinese overseas study with the public sponsorship and self-sponsorship became much better than ever. While the Authority raised the status of the people graduating from abroad via employment after test and awarding them a title of Jinshi (a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) or Juren (a successful candidate in the local imperial examinations). It took Qing Authority a very long time from the lack of national policy and regulations in the Chinese overseas study, to the development and improvement. The guideline of "Chinese traditional knowledge for foundation, Western technology for practical application" and the principle of "combination of selection standard of candidates and overseas supervision" ensured the application and utilization of these kinds of graduates from abroad. All of these promoted the development of the program in sending Chinese study abroad, and the country was returned with a lot of internationalized personnel.The selection criteria, administration and supervision, employment of Chinese study abroad of Qing Dynasty left us a lot of revelations and enlightenment. The appropriate selection criteria determine the success of students studying abroad. Therefore, our country nowadays is much stricter in selection appropriate candidates sponsoring by the government. As of the supervision, our country is more flexible with the national policy than ever, from the simple and single administration converted with service oriented supervision and guidance. As to the successful graduates from abroad, the national authority, on the one hand, adjusts the policy in attracting them returning home, on the other hand, recognizes them being employed abroad, and encourages them to serve their motherland in various ways. Nowadays, these kinds of personnel play a very important role in enhancing our country’s development.更多还原