【作者】 张红蕾；

【导师】 李书源；

【作者基本信息】 吉林大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2004， 硕士

【摘要】 19世纪60年代，一个非常引人注目的现象是 “商战”观念的兴起。传统社会一般贱贾轻商。晚清士人何能倏变前见，转而重视商业。这主要是内外二方面因素合力作用的结果。从历史上观察，早在宋代，由于天下利权尽归于政府，士的生活问题已成为影响个人尊严和人格的重要因素，社会上已出现了“弃儒就贾”的异象。至16世纪，这一异象已成为学者关注和讨论的问题。明清之际的政治变迁在一定程度上加速了“弃儒就贾”的趋势。实际上，从十六世纪以来，中国商人阶层的社会功能在实质上日益重要。与此相随而来的是他们在社会价值系统中所占据的位置显然上升，甚至他们的法律身份也有改善的迹象。晚清士人“商战”观念的兴起更是直接因应西方重商主义冲击的结果。第二次鸦片战争后，海关漏卮引起晚清士人对“商战”的讨论。 “商战”一词，最早见于1862年两江总督曾国藩书函中，并不存中外“商战”的意思，但却为后来士人所引用。李璠引曾国藩成说，进一步提出“商战”理论。薛福成提出更详密的“商战”观点，认为西人追求富强，以工商为先。郑观念认为商战尤重于兵战，是无形之战。16世纪以来中国传统重商思想的发展为晚清士人接受西方近代的经济观念起到了桥梁与中介作用，西潮的冲击，则使已走近传统边缘的中国重商思想最终得以突破传统，走向了近代。正因为这样，晚清士人的商战观念也表现出明显的过渡性特征。大概而言，晚清士人“商战”观念的内涵主要包括内外两个方面。对外主要是要求修改或废除阻碍民族工商业发展的不平等条约，收回利权。晚清士人认为首要应按照西方惯例修改税则，提出了“重征进口货，轻征出口货”的原则。晚清士人呼吁清政府应重视培养和选择熟悉税务的中国人担任税务司的官员，自主海关。最惠国待遇本是近代对等外交的体现，但在西力东侵之下，却形成事实上的不平等。郑观应等人建议清政府与各国谈判修约，来挽回中国利权。晚清士人主张对内应弃旧从新，振兴实业。振兴实业，首先是用近代西方机器改造土货。晚清士人主张工商并重。薛福成提出了“工体商用”论。王韬、马建忠等人还师法西方，希望政府在海外设立领事，保护华商利益。晚清士人还认识到列强之所以取胜，与其工商业组织健全有密切关系，希望建立公司制度和保险制度，由公司股东自主经营。光绪初年，仁和保险公司创立。晚清士人还主张引入西方的银行制度。1897年，清政府在上海开办中国通商银行，后陆续在天津、汉口、广州等地设立分行。晚清士人能够目光内视，提出内兴实业，揭示了晚清士人对近代西方文明和商战的本质已有较充分的理性认识。尽管他们的认识并未能完全摆脱传统的束缚，但已隐隐指明资本主义才是近代中国发展的方向。晚清“商战”观念的形成与发展，既是变革中的社会的产物，反过来又对近代绅商、近代民族主义的兴起与形成起到重要的促进作用。咸、同军兴之际是近代商人从边缘走向中心的一大转机。在晚清商战观念的冲击下，在商人向绅士流动的同时，也发生着绅士向商人流动的现象。1905年科举制的废除，从制度上决定了传统社会结构的解体，促使了绅、商合流趋势的大发展。商、绅、官已形成一个新的绅商社会阶层，成为近代中国民族资产阶级的早期形态。晚清商战观念不仅推动了近代绅商的形成，又通过绅商的商战实践，成为近代民族主义思潮形成的思想资源之一。1894年甲午战争后，晚清绅商初步萌生了近代民族主义意识，呼吁商人确立“公共思想”，尽“公共义务”，通过“商战”御侮救亡。商人在1901年至1903年拒俄运动、1905年抵制美货运动的积极表现，都显示出绅商的民族主义已日益成熟。晚清绅商阶层的民族主义意识虽显零乱而隐晦，但恰能说明近代中国社会整体民族主义的兴起。还应看到，国人在经历义和团武力排外失败后，正是在“商战”观念的荡激下，逐渐认识并采取一种理性的、文明的排外方式。在此语境下，“商战”观念迅速发展，成为影响遍及全国的社会思潮。在此基础上，进而又生成了“学战”，成为近代中国极具意义的思想遗产。更多还原

【Abstract】 In 19th60’s, a striking phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of “trade war”. In traditional society, trade was scorned and businessmen were despised. Why did people in late Qing Dynasty changed their former prejudice and paid attention to trade? Both internal and external factors contributed to this result. From the historical perspective, as early as in Song Dynasty, all rights were controlled by government. Scholars’ life style had become an important factor that influenced personal dignity. The phenomenon of “ Abandoning scholarship and engaging in trade” had appeared. By 16th century, it had been noticed and discussed by many scholars. Political changes at the turn of Ming and Qing accelerated this trend to some degree. In fact, since 16th century, businessmen had played a more and more important role in society. Besides, they occupied an obviously increasing position in social value system. Even their legal status was improved. The immediate cause of “trade war” among people in late Qing Dynasty was the influence of mercantilism in western society. After the second Opium War, the loss in customs caused discussion about“trade war”. The word “trade war” was first used in Zeng Guopan’s book. At that time, it did not have the current meaning, but it was cited by others later. Li Fan put forward the theory of “trade war”. Xue Fucheng put forward a more detailed theory. He believed that trade was most emphasized by westerners in order to become rich. Zheng Guannian believed that trade war was more important than army war and that it was an intangible war.Traditional Chinese commerce concept played an intermediary role for the acceptance of modern western economic theory by people of late Qing Dynasty. Western influence caused Chinese commerce concept to break up its tradition and enter the modern period. Therefore, the concept of “trade war” conveyed the obvious feature of transition.In general, the concept of “trade war” included internal and external aspects. The external aspect mainly required modifying and abolishing unequal pacts that obstructed the development of national industry and commerce and reclaiming rights. People of late Qing Dynasty believed that principles of tax should be modified according to western convention and put forward the principle of “heavy import taxation and light export taxation”. They appealed Qing government to cultivate people who were versed in taxation system and appoint them as officers of tax office so as to take charge of customs on our own. MFN treatment was an expression of equal diplomacy. However, it turned out to be unequal as a result of aggression. Zheng Guanying advised Qing government to negotiate with western countries and modify treaties so as to get back our rights.They also advised destroying the old and establishing the new and developing industry. First of all, modern western machines should be used to reform the backward ones. They proposed that industry and commerce should be paid equal attention. Xue Fucheng put forward the theory of making use of industrial system by commerce. Wang Tao and Ma Jianzhong expected that Qing Dynasty established consulates overseas so as to protect the interests of Chinese businessmen. They became aware that the success of western powers were closely related to their sound industrial and commercial organization and hoped that corporation system and insurance system would be established and controlled by the shareholders. At the beginning of Guangxu Emperor, Renhe insurance company was set up. They also advocated that western bank system should be introduced. In 1897, Qing government opened Chinese Tongshang Bank in Shanghai. Later subsidiary banks were established in Tianjin, Hankou and Guangzhou in succession.The fact that they advised developing industry demonstrated that they had a rational recognition about western civilization and the essence of trade war. Though their recognition could not get rid of the bondage of tradition, it hinted that Capitalism was the developmental direction of mo更多还原