【作者】 羊芙葳；

【导师】 尉迟治平；

【作者基本信息】 华中科技大学 ， 语言学及应用语言学， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 “谎言”与假话并不同一。逻辑真实、法律真实、主观真实,三者都具备的信息才是“实话”；缺少其一,就是“假话”。谎言与假话的本质区别在于说话人的意念。说话人以为自己说的是假,无论事实是真是假,都是“谎言”；说话人以为自己说的是实话,而事实上不是实话,这样的言语才是假话。谎言至少有两方参与者,一方是谎者,一方是被谎者,他们之间可能还有若干个传谎者；说谎者有说谎的自觉意念并竭力掩饰说谎的痕迹,被谎者没有接受谎言的主观意愿。这是构成谎言的两个必备条件。我们还探讨了谎言的其他特征。谎言的形式有有声的“言”,也有无声的“言”；“言”的载体不仅仅是声音,还有文字。谎言的内容包括事件、态度、情绪与情感四种。谎言的产生手段有捏造、隐瞒、暗示、伪装四种类型。谎言的影响主要取决于谎者的动机。从性质上来看,说谎是一种以言行事行为与以言成事行为,是一种交际策略。包含谎言所有的必备条件,剔除谎言非本质的、可此可彼的特征,我们关于谎言的定义是：说谎是人们有意把自认为虚假的信息传递给他人的言语行为与交际策略,谎言是说谎的产物。为了更好地认识谎言的特点,我们从谎言的主体、说谎者的动机、谎言的内容、谎言的方式、面临的后果、可识别度等角度对谎言进行了细致的分类。不同类型的谎言,我们采取不同的处理态度。其中,群体谎、领域谎、恶意的谎言、高风险谎言、强动机谎言、主动型谎言、低识别度谎言是必须识别的谎言,善意的谎言、中性的谎言、零风险谎言、弱动机谎言、高识别度谎言是不必刻意识别的谎言。关于谎言的道德价值,不能一概而论。标准是相对的。要综合衡量说谎的必要性、谎者的动机与谎言的影响这三个因素。面对实实在在的生存威胁或者迫于一定的环境压力时,说谎是避免不了的权宜之计；如果在说谎之外,还有别的选择——是否可以得到宽容,要视谎言的内容与被谎者的心胸而定；在完全没需要的情况下说谎,要么被沦为笑料,要么被人厌倦、疏离。意在利他、利集体、利民族、利国家、利社会的动机是善意的动机,能得到当事人的理解与原谅；意在误导、愚弄、侮辱、侵犯、剥夺他人的动机是恶意的动机,是预防与严惩的对象；意在自保、自利、自娱娱人,出于礼貌或印象管理的中性谎言大多能得到人们的原谅。谎言有维护正当利益、激发人的潜能、创造出良好的生理与心理感觉等正面影响,也有逃避责任义务、窃取不正当利益、阻抑社会效率与他人才华贡献、破坏社会秩序等负面影响。总之,一个人不可能不说谎,必要的、适度的、非恶意的说谎是可以接受的；不必要的、频繁的、刻意的说谎令人反感与厌恶；恶意的、造成负面影响的说谎要予以严惩与打击；只有在为环境所迫的情况下、心怀善意且取得正面效应的谎言,才有积极的道德价值。谎言的根源从大的方面来说,主要是为了趋利避害,有时是为了追求刺激。趋利避害是生物界繁衍进化最本质的根据,是人类社会进步发展最根本的内在推动力,也是话语的根本原则。对于生命体而言,生存是第一位的“利”,死亡是第一位的“害”。对于具体个人而言,在“生”与“死”之间有一张纵横交错的利害网。不同人对不同利害重要性、级别性的认识,取决于他的世界观、价值观与方法论；不同人在不同情况下利害的选择,取决于当时的利害风险比较与成本比较,需要的程度比较与处理的难度比较；付诸现实的最后的利害取舍,都是以自己主观的避负求正原则进行的,反映了人的智慧、品性与当时的生理、心理状况。追求刺激是趋利避害的一种具体表现。因为刺激是快感、快乐的源泉之一,快感、快乐永远是人们锲而不舍的“利益”之一。说谎是一种语言策略,说谎与否面临着利害的比较选择。说谎可能要付出一定的生理成本、心理成本、直接损失成本、发展成本、道德成本乃至法律成本,也可能得到一定的生存收益、成长收益、即时收益、人际收益、经济收益与政治收益。选择的过程就是成本与收益的博弈过程。最终是说实话还是说谎话,取决于成本与收益的比较选择。谎言的指征带有明显的个性色彩,谎言的个性主要体现在谎言的情境性差异,谎言的情境性差异最大的区别在于主动与被动之间。因此,本文在研究谎言的指征时,把谎言分为主动型谎言与被动型谎言进行分别考察。被动型谎言即被动的说谎、临时的说谎；谎者处于弱势地位；谎言多为自保。主动型谎言即主动出击的说谎、有所准备的说谎；谎者处于强势地位,谎言多为自利。“言语”包括三个组成部分：①言语行为,即“言语动作”,就是“说”的行为、“口头表述”的行为。可从音色、音量、重音、语气、语速、停顿、沉默等角度进行考察。②言语方式,即“说”的方式,包括词语的选择、句式的选择、无语义声音的运用、修辞方式的运用等四个方面。③言语内容,即“说的结果”——话语,有字面意义与实际意义之分。主动型谎言与被动型谎言在言语行为、言语方式、言语内容三方面具有明显不同的指征。两种谎言都可能出现的指征,我们把它叫做“通用型谎言指征”。理论上来说,谎言的言语指征,恰恰是与实话相违背的。说实话的时候,可能也会出现谎言的言语指征,但一定是出自异常的生理原因与心理原因。正常人在平常的语境说实话,是不会出现这些谎言指征的。这就是研究谎言指征的价值所在。谎言的副言语指征就是指副言语中能够反映出言者将要说谎、正在说谎或已经说谎的痕迹与信息。不管是什么类型的谎言,通常都有准备、思考、观察、紧张、矛盾、逃逸的副言语指征；被动型的谎言,谎者在眼部、脸部、手部、嘴部、腿脚部、头颈肩部、腰背等部位总要留下这样那样的指征；主动型的谎言,谎者侧重于“蒙蔽”与“误导”的策略,尤其表现在眼睛、神态、注意力、关系与态度的误导。情绪型谎言掩饰真实的情绪,表露不存在的情绪,可能是意在保护自己、避免被操纵的被动谎言,也可能是为了达到某个目的而意在操控他人的主动型谎言。情绪的真正外部表现是一种生理的激活反应；是由神经纤维(与感觉、运动、思维有关)主导的反应；是一种无意识、习惯性的反应；牵动特定的面部肌肉。伪装的情绪表现是通过下意识的努力所“做”出的反应；根据人们对各种情绪的知识与经验,努力控制有关的关键部位尽力“做”出的情绪模式；但只能“做”出表层的、粗线条、片段的、局部的表情,毕竟缺少无意识的微细表情。开心型谎言是以谎为乐的谎言。所以,真正的“笑”是其最明显的副言语指征。谎言的“零指征”,即谎者没有留下任何言语的、副言语的线索,给人的感觉与讲实话完全无异,一般出现在善意的谎言、中性谎言、领域谎、控制型谎、习惯性谎里。其实零指征者还是有很微妙的观察、思考、抑制的痕迹,因此,绝对的“零指征”是不可能存在的。识别零指征谎言有反复质疑、故意沉默、比较言者平时的习惯等有效方法。人类识别谎言的历程与人类文明发展的历程是同步的,对应于人类的神权时代、皇权时代、人权时代,人类的识谎方法经历了历历分明的三个阶段——神识法、刑识法、仪器识法。“神识法”是依靠神明的“显灵”来判断言语真假的方法,经历了“神誓法”、“神裁法”两个阶段,因其不可怀疑的神圣性与权威性查证了当时人力无法查证的谎言和真实,但它的准确性、公正性毕竟有限；“刑识法”就是人们常说的“刑讯逼供”,是用肉刑或变相肉刑、精神折磨等手段识别言语真假、逼取真实口供的方法；“人识法”,是不借助任何外在手段,只依靠人自身的经验、知识和智慧判断言语真假的方法,贯穿于三个阶段,并在刑识法与仪器识法之间的空白时段发挥决定性的作用；仪器识法是借助仪器设备识别谎言的方法,即人们常说的“心理测试”、“谎言测试”,是目前识别谎言效率最高、最客观的武器,但它在物证法阶段的前路还长。历史证明,人类识别谎言最适切的途径就是观察一个人在强烈的外在刺激下言行的、生理的变化。单个指征不能判别谎言的真假,全息审查偏离法是人识法的进步。所谓全息是指整体上的任何一部分或母系统中的任何一个子系统,都包含着整体或母系统的全部信息。言语是一个全息系统,局部的言语是所在言语整体的全息元,言语整体是语境、言者的全息元,言者是社会的全息元。在谎言的识别过程中,要运用“全息思维方法”,掌握人的经历、身份、身体状况、个性与说话习惯等全息级较高的全息元；通过直觉捕捉法、观察现疑法、刺激观察法等方法发现偏离；通过全息对偏离的证“实”或证“伪”来甄别言语的真实性。全息审查偏离法是指发现偏离以后,根据相关的全息审查偏离的真伪性,从而推导出言语真实性的谎言识别方法。全息是已知的事实、知识、规律、公理、定理或逻辑,是不以人的意志为转移的客观存在。如果言语中被发现的偏离全部在全息中找到了说谎以外的原因,即被证明其存在具有正常性、合理性,那么,该偏离就被全息证“伪”——说明实质上并非说谎性偏离,被鉴定的言语对象由此被认定为“实话”。如果言语中被发现的偏离有且至少有一项与全息形成矛盾、冲突,即其存在具有反常性、不可能性,那么,该偏离就被全息证“实”的确是“偏离”,被鉴定的言语对象因此而被认定为“谎话”。谎言的全息审查偏离法为谎言识别提供了一种新的思路、新的方法。虽然我们永远不可能了解某人、某物或某事所有的全息,但了解到某个具体谎言的全息背景,是完全可能的；偏离是显化了的潜信息,我们完全有可能通过直觉或者观察捕捉住；用全息审查偏离的思路是符合逻辑规律的,结论可信、可靠；其过程可以用文字描述、固定,经得起推敲与反证。无需任何仪器设备,适合任何环境、任何个人,具有普适性与操作性。更多还原

【Abstract】 Lies are different from untruth. The words, which are truth in logic, law and subjective, are the really truth; lacking one of the three, the words are untruths. The nature difference between the truth and the untruth is the mind of the speaker. The speaker thinks that he is telling lie, whether the fact is truth or not, that is a lie; The speaker thinks that he is telling the truth, but it is not true in actually, that is the untruth.There are at least two parties in lies, one is the liar, and the other is the receiver. Among them, there may be some spreaders. The liar has the conscious of telling lies and try his best to cover the clue of telling lies, and the receiver doesn’t have the will of receiving lies. These are two essential conditions in lies.We also discussed the other features of lies. Lies have the form of a verbal "speech" and also silent " speech "; the carrier of " speech " is not just the sound, but also the characters; The content of lies includes events, attitudes, emotions and feelings of four. There are 4 ways in producing lies:fabrication, concealment, implied, camouflage. The effect of lies are mainly depend on the liar’s motivation.From the nature point of view, lying is a kind of illocutionary act and the act is done with words, and is a communication strategy. Containing all the necessary conditions for a lie, removing the nonessential and ambiguous features, our definition of lies is that:lies are that people want to have their own false information transmitting to other people’s verbal behavior and communication strategies, lying product lie.To better understand the characteristics of a lie, we learned from the main body of lies, liar’s motivation, the content of lies, the way of lies and the consequences, identifiable degree angle to detailing the classification of lies. Different types of lies, we take a different approach to deal with. Among them, the group lies, the field lies, the black lies, the high-risk lies, the strong motivation lies, the initiative-based lies. The low degree lies must be identified; the white lies, the neutral lies, the zero risk lies, the low motivation lies and the high degree of recognition lies are no need to identify.About the moral value lies, that cannot be generalized. Standards are relative. Comprehensive measuring of the three factors:the need to lying, the motives of lies and the effect of lies. The face of real threats to survival, or forced to a certain degree of environmental stress, lying is not expedient to avoid; besides lying, if there are other options-whether can be tolerated or not, depending on the content of Lies and the receiver’s heart; in the case of completely no need to lie, the liar may be reduced to jokes, or being tired, alienated. Intended to altruism, benefit the collective, national and social is the goodwill motive, and may get the parties to understand and forgive; intended to mislead, fool, insult, abuse, deprivation of others motives are malicious motive, is the object of prevent and punish; aimed at self-protection, self-interest, entertain themselves, for politeness or neutral impression management lies are mostly get people to forgive. Lies can safeguard the legitimate interests, stimulate one’s potential and create a positive physical and psychological feeling, but also to evade responsibilities and obligations, theft illegitimate interests, block social efficiency and the talents" contribution, disrupt social order and so adversely affected. In short, a person can lie, necessary, appropriate, non-malicious lying is acceptable; unnecessary, deliberate,frequent and offensive lying is disgusting; malicious, negative impact of lying should be punished and combated; only in force for the environment situation, made the lie with goodwill and get the positive effect, have a positive moral values.From the general side, the root of lies is mainly for profit and avoiding loss, sometimes in pursuit of stimulation. While avoiding disadvantages are the most essential basis in the biosphere evolving, and the most fundamental internal drive in the development of human society, but also the fundamental principle of discourse. For life, the survival was the first of the "profit", death is the first of the "harm." For specific individuals, between the "profit" and "death", there is a isscross interest network. The choice of interest to different people in different situations, depending on the risk of interest compared with the cost, the comparison of its needs and the treating difficult; put this into the final choice of interest are based on their subjective demand that is to avoid negative principles, and reflects the wisdom, character, and then psychology and physiology. Excitement is a concrete expression while avoiding disadvantages. Excitement is a concrete expression while avoiding disadvantages. Because the stimulation is a source of happiness and pleasure, pleasure and happiness will always be one of the interests that people are preserving for. Lying is a language policy, lie or not, face the comparison and selection of interest. Lie may have to pay a certain cost of physiological and psychological, direct loss costs, development costs, moral costs and even legal costs, but may also be some benefits for survival, growth income, instant income, personal income, economic benefits and political benefits. The process of selection is the process of the game of costs and benefits. Finally telling the truth or lying, depend on the comparison and choice of costs and benefits.The indicator of lies has a clear personality, the personality of lies is mainly in situational difference of lies, and the biggest situational difference of lies in the context difference is between active and passive. Therefore, when this essay research the indicator of lies, it divides the lies is into active and passive types of lies for inspection. Passive lie is lying passively and temporarily; the liar is in a weak position and the lies are mostly for self-preservation. The active lies are proactive to lying and prepared to lie; the liar is in a strong position and the lies are mostly self-serving. "Speech" includes three components:①speech act that "the acts of speech ", is "speaking" behavior, "oral presentation" behavior. It cans judge from the timbre, volume, accent, tone, speed, pause, silence.②speech mode, which is the said approach, including word choice, sentence selection, the use of non-semantic sound, the use of rhetorical devices such four parts③speech content, that is, "the said results"-words, there are literal meaning and practical significance. The active lies and the passive lies have three distinct indicators in the speech act, speech mode, and speech content. The potential indicators appearing in the two types of lies, we call it "universal lie indicator." In theory, the speech indicator of lies, it is the contrary with the truth. When people tell the truth, it may also appear indicators of lies, but it must be some abnormal physiological and psychological reasons. When normal people tell the truth in the usual context, there is no these indicators of lies. This is the value of researching the indicator of a lie.The paraspeech indicator of lies means that in the paraspeech we can judge the speaker will lie, is lying or has traces and information. No matter what type of lie, it usually has the paraspeech indicator of prepared, thinking, observation, tension, conflict, escape; in the passive lies, in the liar’s eye, face, hands, mouth, legs and feet department, head, neck, back and other parts always leave some kinds of indicators; in the active lies, the liar are focused on the "hoodwink" and "misleading" strategy, especially at the misleading in the eyes, the posture, attention, relationships and attitudes. The emotional lies cover up the true feelings, showing the inexistent emotion, may be intended to protect themselves and avoid being manipulated passive lie, it may be intended to achieve a certain purpose aiming at handling other people’s lies. The real external emotional expression is a physiological activation response; is a nerve fiber (and feel, movement, thinking about) led response; is a kind of unconscious, habitual responses; affecting specific facial muscles. The disguised expressions of emotion is through the efforts of the subconscious to "do" the reaction; under the people’s knowledge and exerience of various emotions, taking efforts to control the key parts to "do" the emotional patterns best; but can only "do" the surface, rough outline, fragment, partial expression, after all, lacking of the unconscious fine expression. The fun Lies is lying for fun. Therefore, the real "laugh" is the most obvious indicator of the paraspeech. the "zero indicator" of lies that the Liar left no clues in the language, and the paraspeech, the impression is entirely keeping with telling the truth, generally appearing in white lies, neutral lies, the field lies, the controlled lie, and the habitual lie. In fact, there are indicators of subtle observation, thinking, traces of inhibition in zero indicator, therefore, absolute "zero indicator" could not exist. Recognizing the "zero indicator" of Lies have effective ways repeatedly questioned, deliberate silence, comparing with the speaker’s habit.The identification of lies in human history and the history of human civilization development is synchronized. Corresponding to the era of rights of God, the imperial age, the human rights age, human recognizes lies experiencing a distinctly clear method of three stages-Identifying Lies by Divinity, Identifying Lies by Punishment, and Identifying Lies by Instrument." Identifying Lies by Divinity " is to rely on the gods of the "visions" to determine whether the speech is true or not, through the " Wager of Law " and the " Trial by Ordeal" in two stages, because it is no doubt in the sanctity and authority to verify the time that Human can not verify the lies and truth, but its accuracy and impartiality, after all, is limited; " Identifying Lies by Punishment" is often said that the "torture" and is disguised with a corporal punishment or something likely, mental torture and other means to identifying whether the speech is true or not. "Identifying Lies by People"is not using any external means, only to rely on people’s own experience, knowledge and wisdom to judge the truth of speech, throughout the three stages, playing a decisive role in the gap time between" Identifying Lies by Punishment" and" Identifying Lies by Punishment"; the apparatus knowledge method is to use equipment in the identification of lies, often referred to as "the psychological test", "the lie test", and is the most efficient and objective way in recognizing lies, it is the first stage in evidence knowledge method History has proved that the most appropriate way in human recognizing lies is to observe a person’s words and physiological changes under the strong external stimuli.Lies can not be distinguished either is truth or false by a single indicator, holographic screening deviation method is the progress of the human knowledge method. The so-called hologram is any part of the whole or any subsystem of the mother system, consisting of all the information of the whole or the mother system. Speech is a holographic system; the partial language is the holographic element of the whole speech. The overall speech is the context of words and the speaker’s the holographic element, and the speaker is the holographic element of society. In the process of recognizing lies, it has to use "the holographic thinking way ", mastering people’s experience, identity, health status, personality and speech habits, these are high levels of holographic elements; through intuitive capture method, observing suspected method, stimulating observation method finding the deviation; through the holographic certificating the deviation is "real" or "false" to identify the authenticity of speech.The holographic screening deviation method is a method of recognizing lies:that is basing on a certain deviation, and then use the associated holographic to judge the speech’ s authenticity. Holography is the known fact, knowledge, laws, axioms, theorems or logical, is the objective existence which is independent of man’s will. If all of deviation in words were found in Holography for reasons other than lying, that proves the existence of the deviation is normal and reasonable, then, that deviation was hologram certificating "false"-the deviation is not deviating for lying in nature, thus the identified words is "truth." If the deviations in the speech have been found at least one contradicting or conflicting with the hologram, that is, the existence is abnormal and impossibility, then, that the deviation is hologram certificating "reality", that identified "deviation" is true, and the identified words are "lies."Holographic screening deviation method provides a new thinking way and new approach in identifying lies. While we can never know all the hologram of someone or something, but knowing that a specific lie’s holographic background, it is entirely possible; the deviation is significant of the potential information. We entirely possible capture it by intuition or observation; the thought of using the holographic screening deviation is keep with logical laws, the conclusion is credible and reliable; the process can be described in words, fixed, and can withstand scrutiny and counterevidence. The Holographic screening deviation method can take out without any equipment, and is suitable for any environment and any person, with universality and operability.更多还原