【作者】 朱海伍；

【导师】 孙晓春；

【作者基本信息】 吉林大学 ， 政治学理论， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 1840年,鸦片战争打开了古老中国的大门。西方列强依靠他们的“坚船利炮”全面侵入到儒学统驭下的东方世界。面对这“数千年未有之变局”,一些开明的中国人开始睁眼看世界,致力于“救亡图存”这一目标。他们痛苦地认识到近代中国和西方相比已经落伍。要想战胜西方列强,改变落后挨打的被动局面,就必须做到知己知彼。魏源明确提出“师夷长技以制夷”的口号,表达了向西方学习的必要性。但思想家对西方的认识,仅仅停留在船坚炮利的器物层面,并没有彻底反思中国传统政治制度和文化。随着民族灾难的加重,在统治阶级内部,逐渐形成了“洋务派”。他们以求强、求富为主要目标,力图使中国强大起来,不再受西方各国的欺辱。李鸿章就是他们中的杰出代表,他力求通过向西方学习,改变中国的落后面貌。为此他“变易军制”,建立新式陆军,创建了北洋海军;并大力发展工矿企业。为实现求强求富的目的,需要大批懂得现代知识的新式人才,因此他力求改变中国的教育体制,并向外国选派留学生。中国要求强求富,需要一个相对和平的国际环境。在国力孱弱的情况下,李鸿章不得不采取“和戎”外交策略,力图保持中外和好的局面。李鸿章的洋务思想主要包括军事、经济、教育、外交等方面,大体可以概括为变法、自强、和戎。李鸿章的洋务思想及其实践推动了中国走向近代化的步伐。通过对李鸿章洋务思想的研究,可以更好地了解李鸿章以及那个时代,并给目前的改革开放以某些借鉴。李鸿章力图通过开展洋务运动使中国变得富强起来,虽然这个目的没有完全实现,但洋务运动促进了中国的进步,加快了近代化的步伐。本文以今人的视野回溯和反思李鸿章的洋务思想,尝试通过解读李鸿章的洋务思想与实践而重塑这段历史,并检讨中国整个近代化过程中的发展情态,以期为审视今天的现代化建设提供某些认知上的贡献。更多还原

【Abstract】 After the Opium War, China has entered into a period of severe shock, rapid changes have taken place in the society, from the beginning of a closed-door policy of the feudal society, step by step over to the semi-colonial society. Western powers’"gunboats" opened Chinese closed-door, and shattered some Chinese dream that China is a "heavenly" country. China has been falling behind now while in the front of the world culture and economy’s development process Long-term before, faced with the fate of being enslaved by Western powers.Some landlord class and progressive officials who had traditional virtues of caring for country and people weren’t reconciled to decline of China, and began to seek the methods of making China strong and prosperous. They abandoned the traditional“distinction between the Han nationality and the ethnic groups”, and recognized the backwardness of China, admitted Western powers’advance in some fields. Wei Yuan also putted forward the slogan of“learn the technology from the west to fight against them”, became the power and objectives of Chinese to learn from western countries. Lin Zexu, as an imperial commissioner, lead and took part in the Opium War directly, perceived more that China was too closed and know too few about outside. So he himself consulted all kinds of western things from foreigners, became the first official who open sight to perceive the world. These early ideas of social change after the Opium War played a huge role in the promotion of formation and development of Westernization thought.After the failure of two Opium Wars and the heating of the Taiping Rebellion, the Qing Dynasty was in a precarious, some of the highest ruling clique recognized the need to change, otherwise the Qing Dynasty have the danger of extinction. So from 1860s Westernization thought rose, and formed Westernization Group within the ruling class. Its representative is the landlord class bureaucrats and its intellectuals with a certain sense of community change. Including Minster Prince YiXin represented the Qing Court while Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, ,Zuo Zongtang,Shen Baozhen and Ding Richang represented the local officials. The Westernization Group more or less had the Empress Dowager CiXi’s support that is in fact the highest ruler of Qing Dynasty at that time. In order to get the Qing Dynasty out of the crisis of internal and external troubles, the Westernization Group were aimed for the rich and strong demanding, and vigorously carried out the Westernization Movement to bring China into modern process. The Westernization Movement is actually the "Self-Strengthening Movement" of China.As one of main representative of the Westernization Movement, Li Hongzhang not only had the decision rights of local things where he was in charge of, but also had a great influence on the Court’s policies after he was Province Governor and Northern Trade Minister. Lots of the Court’s decision-making were based on his advice. The Westernization Movement widely carried out because of his great relationship. Li Hongzhang, as an orthodox feudal bureaucrat, faced the change that thousands of years haven’t happen, can sized up the situation and clearly understood the situation, didn’t blindly arrogant, understood the West through a variety of ways, and increased the understanding to the world. Li Hongzhang’s Westernization thought arose from his clear understanding of the current situation, and he thought China must change if want strong. He pointed out that "in this situation, we should cooperate with foreign countries while reform ourselves." Li Hongzhang thought that China couldn’t change the destiny of being insulted by foreign powers if we don’t reform.“China will be insulted for a long time, if it do not reform but argue with others with pen and tongue.”So Li Hongzhang’s conclusion is that“Any circumstance hitting a limit will begin to change. Change will in turn lead to an unimpeded state, and then lead to continuity.”It is because of his understanding of the West made him aware of the advance of the West, particularly the advanced military weapons. So could he adhere to hold the Westernization Movement in China, and be a chief commander of Westernization Movement, so that gradually formed its own Westernization thoughts. Li Hongzhang is the doer of Westernization Group, there is no special book on his Westernization thoughts. His thoughts mainly distributed in memorials to the throne, various manuscripts, and telegrams.Li Hongzhang was an author originally, but started by the military, and got the court’s recognition to become Fengjiang official by putting down the Taiping Rebellion. It was in the military suppression of Taiping Rebellion, he recognized the advance of the Western weapons, and acutely recognized that though the Taiping rebellion was at present the main enemy of the Qing court, but the Western powers were the real enemy in future. Not to be bullied by foreign powers, the Qing Army must abandon "bows and arrows, knives and horses", and use Western advanced weapons, establish new army. After Japan invaded Taiwan, the importances of coastal defense also were put on the agenda. So, he vigorously strengthened the building of the navy, built the Northern Navy of Asian advanced level. At the same time of buying a large number of weapons from the West, in order to save money and not to controlled by others, Li gradually built a number of Arsenals, produced weapons, ammunitions and ships with their own. All of this had strengthened China’s national defense strength, and had played a positive role in resisting aggression. Strengthen military construction could be called“demand strongly”. This is also the core of Li Hongzhang’s military thoughts. He thought that the main reason why the Qing Military couldn’t defeat the Western powers is that“our technology isn’t as good as western powers”, so he thought China must“learn from foreigners”, and“getting western technology for China”could defeat enemy. He maintained“reforming Military System”,“cutting green camp”, and establishing new style army, adopting western training method, and“prior building up navy”,”strengthening coast defense”, achieve the aim of strengthening the military by“learning form foreigner and capture it’s relies on”.Li Hongzhang thought that rich is related to strong, and should“demand rich”at the same time of“demand strong”. He said that“from ancient to now, one country must be rich first while strong behind, especially people rich can make country strong.”He also thought the puny of China is because of poor.”So he opened Steamship Merchants first, and supported to start-up mine, construction the railway, set up cables and start-up weaving machine factory. He wanted to win profit from foreigners and reduce the foreign goods in China in order to reduce China’s economic losses and make China rich. On the other hand, through starting-up mine, China can serve the army, and reduce dependence on foreign coal. He also hoped to increase the Court’s tax by starting-up industrial and mining enterprises to solve the problems of shortage of provisions and funds.In the processes of strengthening the military construction and start-up industrial and mining enterprises, Li Hongzhang recognized the importance of talents. The people trained by reading "Four Books and Five Classics" didn’t master western modern science and technology, couldn’t meet the need. Li Hongzhang thought that“the Western study had a long historical standing, and is prevail now. There are too much schools and too much students is the West, so they are rich more and more.”So, He suggested that China should recall the educated officials, abandon the two tests in spring and autumn, cut down and merge the colleges, set up schools, study according subjects and school term, appoint the graduate students as officials”. That is to reform the educate system. He thought the active system couldn’t bring up the real useful talents for China. China should set up new style schools to bring up the talents who master the west knowledge. Li Hongzhang also thought China should send good students to west to study western knowledge, this is the basic of Chinese self- strengthening. So he was in favor of sending students to Europe to study military, and helped to bring about sending children to U.S.A. He thought“sending children to U.S.A. to study their good technology, this is the basic of Chinese self- strengthening.”Li hongzhang also thought if China can set up new school related the Qing dynasty’s fate. He said that”if set up the new school, China can last hundred years, otherwise, somebody will defeat the Qing dynasty.”Li Hongzhang thought that“reform educate system, develop west knowledge”is the main aim of education reform.The core of Li Hongzhang’s diplomatic thoughts is to cooperate with foreign countries. So, he“suffered wrong for the sake of achieving his our purpose to ensure peace”. He pay attention to“Comply with chapter”and commitment to abide by diplomatic.“Safeguarding national interests”is the main goal what his diplomatic thoughts sought. He had argued with west to decrease country’s loss, and had ever taken the diplomatic strategy of“using western power’s method to deal with them”. Li Hongzhang also know the inclemency nature of western power. He said“it is a draw on the surface, but we must prepare to shudder, seek for peace can be quick and last. The west rely on their force, will crack us down with their energy. It wouldn’t last for long if We defeat them with pen and tongue.”So Li Hongzhang didn’t pin his hope on negotiation. At the same time of negotiation, He will even prepare to war. He also strong declare that“whether war or not, we will look at your attitude”. Because of the weak national strength of China, many of treaty he signed were unequal. China lost a large number of Chinese sovereignty. He was the diplomatic whom people criticized most and disputed most. However, after an in-depth study, we found that Li Hongzhang adhered to safeguard the rights and interests of Chinese in his diplomatic policy, and strived to reduce losses. But due to lack of awareness, there were a lot of mistakes. Such as wrong understood and practice of Russia after“three country interference in returning Liao”had given China a great loss, It was Li Hongzhang’s responsibility that not to be shirked.In general, Li Hongzhang’Westernization thought is the product of times progress, and produced by the affect of western modern civilization. His Westernization Movement played a positive role in promoting China’s progress. But because of the limitations of Westernization thought and Westernization movement, could not assume the responsibility to save China. History is looking for a new force, and the Chinese people need more progressive ideas to arm ourselves in order to be able to take real action to save the country.更多还原