【作者】 许忠明；

【导师】 王韶兴；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中共党史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 中国在王朝循环式的闭合文明系统中依靠强大的历史惯性发展了几千年,直到十九世纪中叶,这种传统统治模式才开始被动地接触外部世界。在经历过血与火的教训之后,这种超稳定系统被打开了一个个缺口。“华夷之辨”与“天朝上国”的夜郎自大最终被西方的坚船利炮所击碎。先进的中国人历尽千辛万苦寻找治国救民的良方,他们终于认识到国家落后的原因并不仅仅在于技不如人,更重要的是国家政治制度的落后。在立宪政治日渐高涨的呼声中,政党终于走上了中国的政治舞台。恩格斯在1883年对《共产党宣言》再次出版时的德文版序言中正确地指出：“每一历史时代的经济生产以及必然由此产生的社会结构,是该时代政治的和精神的历史的基础”。沿着这一思路出发,分析民初政党政治的产生条件,必须先从清末民初的经济、社会变化出发,方能看清民初政党政治的产生条件。康乾盛世是中国封建制度的最后一抹余晖。从此之后,中国在西方日益发展的资本主义面前,迅速走上了历史的下坡路。1840年的枪炮声使古老的中华民族面临着亡国灭种的巨大危险。地主阶级、农民阶级、资产阶级纷纷登上历史舞台对中国的出路进行了艰辛探索。中国民族资本主义工业的兴起和初步发展直接催生了资产阶级,为中国社会裂变注入了原动力,导致中国社会出现了重大变化。清朝政府的国家权力出现了严重危机,各种新的思想理论异彩纷呈。民初政党政治就是在社会急剧变化,晚清政治权威不断下降,民族危机空前严重的客观形势下,借鉴西方政党思想而出现的一种政治现实。清末民初政党产生的历史条件与英国政党、日本政党的产生不同。英国的政党经历了一个长期的发展历程,它扎根于社会多元主义、阶级制度、市民社会、对法治的信念、亲历代议制度的经验、精神权威与世俗权威的分离以及对个人主义的坚持。这些不同质的封建贵族、教会、皇权、社会之间的斗争为政党的产生和成长不仅提供了空间和时间,而且它的分权、自由、平等、理性的多元主义文化为政党提供了生长的土壤。日本的政党与中国政党的产生有其共同之处,都是从西方引进的,但是日本的传统文化包袱显然要比“天朝上国”的中国小得多,其精英人物在社会转型过程中起到了重要作用。他们在“全盘西化”的思想指导下,比较迅速地实现了自身的转换而快速跻身世界强国之列,但是他们由此走上的法西斯道路也足以引起我们的警惕。中国政党是被作为强国的工具来使用的,在发展过程中出现的“水土不服”是非常明显的。这种不同使得中国政党政治表现出诸多自己的特点。按照民初政党的主张和行为,可以把我国早期的政党分为革命政党和立宪政党。孙中山先生和梁启超先生对民初政党政治都作出了各自不同的回答。孙中山先生认为只有彻底结束满清王朝的君主专制制度,才能在中国建立一个现代立宪制国家,因此他选择了革命道路；而以康有为、梁启超为代表的维新派则想在中国创立君主立宪国家,因而选择了改良道路。这两大政党虽然政治主张不同,但是在推翻满清王朝方面却是交相呼应,客观上共同主导了清末民初的社会风潮,他们提出的议会、政党、国民之间关系的政治思想在当时对于政党政治的发展起了重要作用。民初政治舞台上的政党展开了激烈的斗争,这主要包括同盟会与袁世凯的北洋军阀势力之间关于君主立宪还是民主共和、是定都南京还是定都北京、总统制还是内阁制、是超然内阁还是政党内阁的斗争。这一斗争直接威胁到袁世凯的权力宝座,袁世凯多次引入军警武力威胁和暗杀手段而取得胜利。二次革命失败后,袁世凯加紧了对国会的摧残和破坏,在使用各种非法手段取得总统权位后,他又在宪法起草问题上与国会形成激烈对峙,最后以武力解散国民党,致使议会民主政治遭遇重大挫折。袁世凯统治时期,国会虽被解散,但政党争取自身权益的斗争并未结束。随着袁世凯帝制自为野心的逐渐暴露,各个党派逐渐联合在一起。进步党人是反袁斗争的领导者和组织者,欧事研究会则逐渐成为护国战争的主力,中华革命党则是护国战争中的重要力量。护国战争胜利后,国会重开。各个党派以“系”、“会”的名义继续在国会中展开分权与集权、战争与否的激烈斗争,并再次不幸成为“府院之争”的殉葬品。进步党人依附封建军阀势力,提议召开新的国会,却被安福系击败而从此失去其地位。安福系在国会中的倒行逆施,终于使民初国会、政党在人们心中的地位一落千丈。民国初年政党政治的失败并不意味着政党政治本身的失败,而是由于我们没有能够建立起符合自己实际情况的政党政治,这场政党政治的实验由于外力的强制作用而被过早地终止。这里面的原因是多方面的：中国既缺乏西方社会强大的资本主义经济基础和阶级基础,也缺乏广大的群众基础,这一现实导致政党政治严重脱离了人民群众,在面对强大的封建势力时孤立无援；民初政党既由于自身建设严重滞后,在斗争中耗尽了自身的实力而被封建军阀所轻取,又由于军人干政而导致政治的脆弱和反复。本文在上述看法的基础上,提出了三个新的观点：第一个分析了契约精神与民初政党政治的关系；第二个是政党选择的失误对政党政治的作用；第三个从国家类型转换的复杂性和国家强大的重要性方面,论述了国家与民初政党政治的内在冲突和矛盾。这是从文化层次、精神方面、制度层面进行的深层考察。这三个方面长期被民国研究的学者所忽略,但是它却是隐而不显、导致民国政党政治失败的极为重要的原因。契约精神是人类文明的精髓所在,而中国却充满了权变思想,忽视、漠视、甚至歧视契约精神,导致了信用关系在民初朝野两界的大规模、深层次坏死,这既表现在行政势力方面,也表现在民初政党之间。这种情况导致了宪法、法律、制度的形同虚设和无所作为。法律的实质是人民与政府的一种契约,它是政治的准则,但是法律在中国人心中一直被当做一种手段来使用,因为我们认为它有便捷的实用价值和强国的工具作用,这个重要的区别导致了西方孕育、产生的政党政治在中国遭遇了它不曾有过的曲折命运。另外,国人对于政治人物品质的过高期望,缺乏妥协精神无疑也是政党政治挫折的原因之一。政体选择是政治活动中极为重要的一环。古希腊著名的执政官梭伦特别强调良好政体的重要性：“邪恶的政体将置城邦于灾难之中,而良善的政体却能使一切井然有序,将恶徒绳之以法。良善政体将化解冲突、恪守中道、温良俭让,遏制无序状态的爆发。善政将明辨曲直、从谏如流、避免分化,终结无休的争端。有序、智慧的善政是万世之本。”从西方政治活动的理论和实践观察,政体选择一直是一个极为重要的问题,然而民初政党政治中对这一问题缺乏科学的研究和重视,在政体选择上一再出现失误,导致一再出现的“府院之争”最终葬送了民初政党政治的活力。如何正确处理国家建设与民初政党政治的关系,是影响着民初政党政治的成败的又一个关键问题。中国背负着2000多年的封建专制传统,在从王朝国家向民族国家转变的过程中,步履蹒跚。中华民国成立后,国家建设百废待兴,政党政治与国家建设的矛盾常常难以调和。民初政党政治既要反对袁世凯和满清等封建势力复辟王朝国家的企图,又要面对现代国家建设的挑战,这就使它常常力不从心。在严峻的国内外形势下,政党政治没有能够经受住这种双重的压力,最终走向失败,也是有其历史必然性的。民初政党政治是议会民主与中国封建势力的殊死较量,其中贯穿着中央集权主义与政治自由主义之间的斗争。以袁世凯为代表的北洋军阀依靠军警的暴力支持,大肆打击和缩小政治参与、地方自治、言论自由等人民好不容易争取来的权利,最终把政党政治逼上了绝路,而自己也走上了复辟倒退的历史不归路。这是一场民主自由与封建专制同归于尽的历史悲剧。《剑桥中华民国史》曾经精辟地总结说：“民国早期两场失败的政治试验——自由主义政治和独裁政体,似乎彼此是在其互相斗争中消灭的。民初政党政治的历史界碑矗立在20世纪的入门口,当我们抚摸这段历史界碑的时候不由得产生深刻的历史感悟。民初政党政治标志着中国政治发展道路上开始了从未有过的历史大转型。民主共和的理念已经深入人心,寻求用宪政秩序来代替以治乱循环和成王败寇为特征的王朝政治与霸道政治,已经成为中国自十九世纪末以来的最持久而未果的政治追求,运行2000多年的王朝国家终于进入了历史的陈列馆。这段历史启示我们,要把公民社会与政党政治结合在一起,公民社会乃是政党政治之“根”;努力加强宪政建设,宪政国家乃是政党政治之“壳”。如果没有宪政国家的保护和公民社会的滋养,政党政治很难获得健康的发展。更多还原

【Abstract】 Chinese dynasty in their own civilized system, a closed circular to rely on a strong historical inertia, which has been developing for thousands of years. until the mid-nineteenth century, this traditional rule began to passive exposure to the outside world. Having gone through blood and fire, after the lesson, this super-stable system has been opened a series gap. Arrogant which "Hua Yi Zhi Bian" and "heavenly nation," eventually crushed by Western gunboats. Advanced Chinese try their best to find the prescription for country and people running the country, they finally understand the reason behind the state not only is less competent technology, more importantly, the backwardness of the country’s political system. In a gradual upsurge in the constitutional voice, The political parties finally ended up in China’s political arena.Engels in 1883 of the "Communist Manifesto" re-publication of the German preface rightly pointed out:"Every historical era of economic production and the resulting social structure inevitably, is the era of the history of political and spiritual basis for. " Along those lines, this paper analyzes the production conditions of the early Republican party politics, you must first end of the Qing’s economic, social changes departure, can only see the production conditions of the early Republican party politics.Kangxi and Qianlong of China’s feudal system of the last glow of twilight. Since then, Chinese capitalism in the West face of the growing quickly embarked on the history of downhill. In 1840, the guns are silenced so that the old national subjugation and genocide of the Chinese nation is facing great danger. The landlord class, the peasant class, the bourgeoisie have mounted the stage of history the way out of China has made arduous explorations. The rise of China’s national capitalist industry and the initial development of direct birth of the bourgeoisie, in order to fission into a driving force in Chinese society, resulting in significant changes occurred in Chinese society. State power in the Qing government showed a serious crisis, a variety of new ideas, theories, and splendor. The early Republican party politics is in rapid social changes, the late Qing political authority declining national crisis of unprecedented magnitude of the objective situation, drawing on ideas of Western political parties, the emergence of a political reality.The production of the political party in end of the Qing has its own special historical conditions, which is different from the British political parties,and the Japanese political parties. British political party has gone through a long development process, which is rooted in social pluralism, the class system, civil society, faith in the rule of law, witnessed the experience of representative institutions, spiritual authority and the separation of secular authority as well as adherence to individualism. These different nature of the feudal nobility, church, imperial, social struggle between the creation and growth of a political party not only provide the space and time, and its separation of powers, freedom, equality, rationality and cultural pluralism as a political party provides a growth soil. Japan’s political parties and the emergence of China has its own in common, are imported from the West, but the burden of Japan’s traditional culture is much smallerthan China’s, its elites play an important role in the process of social transformation.They believe "total Westernization", so Japan rapidly achieved its own transformation and walked into the world powers, but they embarked on this path of fascism which is enough to arouse our vigilance. Chinese political party is used as a powerful tool to use, and in the development process, the symptoms which "inability to adapt" is very clear. This difference makes the Chinese party politics show a lot of its own characteristics.In accordance with the early Republican party ideas and behavior, can be divided into two political parties in Early Chinese revolutionary political parties and constitutional political parties. Mr. Sun Yat-sen and Liang early Republican party politics have made their different answers. Sun Yat-sen that only an end to the Qing dynasty, the autocratic monarchy in order to establish in China a modern constitutional system of the country, so he chose the revolutionary road; while with Kang Yu-wei, Liang Chi-chao, represented by reformers in China, wants the creation of constitutional monarchy, so has chosen the improvement of the road. Although the two major political parties of different political views, but in the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in cross-echoes is, objectively speaking, co-led wave of social end of the Qing. They put forward parliaments, political parties, national political and ideological relationship between the time not only played an important role, but also for today’s party politics is still an important inspiration. In the long run, these two forces in China’s social progress, there will be a long time, compete with each other, complement each other and jointly promote China’s social development, which will no doubt hope for the Chinese nation.The early Republican political parties on the political scene engaged in a fierce struggle, which include the Northern Alliance warlords and Yuan Shikai between the constitutional monarchy or a democratic republic, its capitalcapital in Nanjing or Beijing, presidential or cabinet system, supreme or the Cabinet political parties in the Cabinet struggle. This struggle a direct threat to the throne of the power of Yuan Shikai, Yuan has introduced military and police force, threat and assassination means victory. Second revolution failed, Yuan stepped up to the devastation and destruction of Congress in the use of various illegal means to winning the presidency downstream power and position, he has in the drafting of a constitution to form the fierce confrontation with the Congress, the last to force the dissolution of the KMT, led to Parliament democracy a major setback.Yuan Shikai’s reign, Parliament was dissolved, but the political parties fighting for their rights struggle is not over. As the Yuan imperial ambitions from the gradual exposure of the various parties to bring together gradually. Progress in the struggle against Yuan revolutionaries is the leader and organizer, Europe, something the study of war, protect the country is gradually becoming the main force in China is to protect the country’s Revolutionary Party, an important force in the war. Protect the country after the victory of the war, Congress re-opened. All parties to "department", "would" in the name continues to expand in the Congress of decentralization and centralization of power, war or not, the fierce struggle, and once again, unfortunately, become a "struggle between the government hospital," sacrificial lambs. Progress partisan attachment feudal warlords, it is proposed to convene a new parliament, but was defeated and the subsequent loss of Anfu Department of their status. Anfu tied perverse act of Congress, and finally to Congress, the status of political parties in people’s hearts plummeted.The early Republican political parties are many reasons for the failure. In a sense, the early Republican party politics, the failure does not mean the failure of party politics in itself, but because we have not been able to establish an effective party politics, party politics in this experiment because of the mandatory role of the external forces have been premature termination. Inside are many reasons for this:China is neither the lack of Western society a strong economic base of capitalism and class-based, but also a lack of the masses based on this reality led to political parties seriously divorced from the masses of the people in the face of a powerful feudal When forces of isolation; the early Republican party not only because of self-construction has seriously lagged behind in the struggle exhausted its own strength has been the feudal warlords of the beat, but also because of military interference in politics which lead to political fragility and repeated. In this paper, based on the above-mentioned views, proposed three new perspectives:one is to analyze the spirit of the contractual relationship with the early Republican party politics; the second is the failure of the political parties choose the role of party politics. The third type of conversion from the state complexity and the importance of strong and powerful country, discussed the state and the early Republican party politics in the internal conflicts and contradictions. This is from a cultural level, spiritual, institutional levels deep study. These three areas have long been ignored by scholars of the Republic of research, but it is implicit rather than explicit, leading to the failure of the Republican party politics is extremely important.Contract spirit is the essence of Western civilization, while China is fraught with contingency thinking, neglect, neglect and discrimination against the spirit of contract, resulting in a credit relationship between government and opposition circles in China’s large-scale, deep-seated necrosis, which is both an expression of administrative power in, but also in early Republican political parties.This has led to the Constitution, laws exist in name only and do nothing.Essence of the Constitution is the people and the Government of a contract, it is the political criteria, but the Constitution in the hearts of the Chinese people has always been used as a means to use, because we think it has a convenient and powerful tool for practical value the role of this importantthe difference between the way the West has led to party politics in China suffered twists and turns that it did not have a destiny.In addition, the quality of Chinese political figures for high expectations, lack of a spirit of compromise is no doubt one of the reasons of party politics setbacks.Political activities regime choice is an extremely important part. Archon Solon of ancient Greece famous special emphasis on the importance of a good system of government:"the evil system of government will be set among the city-state in the disaster, while the goodness of all well-ordered system of government but can be bad guys to justice. goodness form of government will resolve the conflict and abide by the middle, gentleness thrift to curb the outbreak of disorder. Good governance will tell the merits, Congjian such as flow, to avoid differentiation, the end of round disputes. orderly and good governance is the wisdom of ages of this. "Western political activity from the theory and practice of observation, regime choice has always been an extremely important issue, however, the early Republican party politics on this issue in the lack of scientific research and attention to the choice of the regime of repeated mistakes, again and again there(?)s "government hospital battle," and ultimately losing the vitality of the early Republican party politics.How to handle correctly the relationship between the country’s construction and the early Republican party politics, affected the success or failure of the early Republican party politics, another key issue. China saddled with more than 2,000 years of feudal autocratic tradition, from the Empire State to the nation-state transition in the process of reeling. The Republic of China after the establishment of nation-building undone, party politics and nation-building is often difficult to reconcile the contradictions. The early Republican party politics, it is necessary to oppose Yuan and Qing dynasties such as the restoration of the feudal forces and the country’s attempt to face the challenges of the modern nation-building, which it is often powerless. In the grim situation at home and abroad, political parties are not able to withstand the pressure of such a double and eventually defeat, but also has its historical inevitability.The early Republican party politics is a parliamentary democracy with Chinese feudal forces in a desperate contest, which runs through the centralism and the struggle between political liberalism. To the Northern warlord Yuan Shikai as the representative to rely on police violence in support, vigorously to combat and reduce political participation, local self-government, freedom of expression and other people’s hard-won fight for the right to the end to party politics forced on the road to ruin, while he has also embarked on a restoration history of regression of no return. This is a democratic freedom and the tragic history of feudal autocracy die. "Cambridge History of the Republic of China," has brilliantly concluded:"It was an early two failed political experiment-the liberal political and authoritarian regimes, it seems that with each other in their mutual struggle against annihilation."The history of the early Republican party politics pillar stands in the 20th century into the door, when we touch this part of history when the pillar could not help but have a profound historical insights. The early Republican party politics, political development indicates that China started on the road has never been a major historical transformation. Democratic Republic of the concept has gained recognition seek to use to replace the constitutional order or chaos is characterized by cycles and winner takes all, dynastic politics and hegemonic politics has become in China since the late nineteenth century has been the most lasting and unsuccessful political pursuit, running 2000 years of dynastic history, China has finally entered the museum. History teaches us that we should civil society and political parties together, civil society, political parties Naishi the "root"; efforts to strengthen the constitutional construction, constitutional state Naishi party politics, the "shell." There is no protection of constitutional government, civil society, nourished, party politics can not be successful.更多还原