【作者】 邢千里；

【导师】 刘凤君；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 考古学及博物馆学， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 孔子形像的视觉表现是中国古代思想文化和艺术的一个特殊文本,主要表现为绘画和雕塑两种形式。儒家思想是中国封建社会思想文化的主体,深刻地影响了中国思想文化艺术和社会生活等诸多方面,孔子的形像已经随着儒学的沉浮而内化为中国传统思想和文化的标志性符号之一。对于儒学的尊崇、研究和宣传在重视图画“成教化、助人伦”观念指导下必然离不开对于孔子形像的视觉表现,这种表现又由于统治阶级对于孔子后人的优待和孔庙的延续而带有祖先崇拜的性质。从上层统治阶级到普通民众,广泛而深入的孔子及其儒学崇拜和学习使得大量艺术家、熟练画工和普通工匠参与到孔子图像的制作当中,材质和形式也逐渐多样化。不论是肖像式描绘还是情节式图解或其它形式,孔子再也不是春秋时代那位不得志的教书先生,而是儒家思想和中国文化一个无所不在的象征。历代孔子像的演变,已经远远超出了孔子像本身的视觉意义,折射出各时期对于孔子及其儒学地位和影响有意无意的解构与重塑,也反映出各个历史时期社会思想尤其是儒释道三教的消长关系,还可以从一个侧面了解古代人物绘画的脉络和特点。然而,历代孔子形像却不是儒学研究的对象,也不是美术史观照的个案,处于一种边缘化的状态。对于历代孔子形像的研究,重要的已经不是孔子真实形貌的探求和再现,而是其在思想和文化建构中的符号性表征意义。本文从有关孔子的早期文献入手,结合当时的文化环境、艺术面貌和考古实物等,勾勒出孔子可能的形貌特点。分析文献中对于孔子的描述和记载,以及其它文献中关于绘画尤其是人物绘画的特点,对孔子的初步的“异相化”进行研究,为之后两千多年中孔子图像的演化和变迁追根溯源,也在儒家思想尚没有形成独尊地位的两汉之前的时期将孔子真实形貌和图像表现放置在一个相对客观的环境之中加以分析。在没有实物佐证的情况下,从当时的祖先与古圣贤崇拜和宫殿、庙堂的壁画传统等分析,孔子在其没后不久是有可能出现了图像表现的。结合先秦的考古资料如壁画、帛画和雕塑等实物与文献记载,对孔子图像出现的大致面貌进行了追溯和还原。大量含有孔子内容的汉代画像石是已知最早的孔子图像实物资料,这也是后来大量孔子图像形式的渊源。在汉代“独尊儒术”的思想背景下,这些画像石中的孔子形像已经在儒士们的头脑和手中完成了初步的“改造”。根据儒学思想的主要特点和文献中反映出来的比较公认的孔子形貌特点及其主要经历绘制的孔子被基本定格在高大、谦逊、慈祥等特征上。故事选择、情节安排和人物造型上无不是为了烘托孔子的“温良恭俭让”等精神气质。孔子形像呈现出虽然略有差异但却相对固定的模式,显示出汉代画像石中的孔子图解是来自某个或几个固定的粉本,而这些粉本的出现和流传,显然离不开上层统治阶级的提倡和授意。这些粉本一方面使更多的普通民众崇拜孔子有所凭依而不仅仅是通过繁浩的儒家著作,孔子的形像和事迹因此更加容易被传播和接受,对于巩固封建统治、维护社会的稳定等起到了积极作用；另一方面,在官方主流思想的要求下,这些粉本有意识地曲解和改造了历史本来的面貌,也在很大程度上桎梏了人们在思想和图像上认知孔子的客观性和多维性。魏晋南北朝时期是一个社会动荡、思想大解放的年代,是人的觉醒与自觉、文学艺术蓬勃发展的时期,同时也是中国古代绘画史上绘画全面自觉的时期。这些都对于孔子图像的表现在新时期的面貌有直接的影响。儒家思想受到质疑和挑战,道家思想重新兴起、佛教传入和玄学的流行对于打破汉代孔子形像的模式起到了很大作用。在与道教和佛教的对立与斗争中,儒教也逐步从借鉴他者的过程中丰富和完善自己,孔子图像表现也由此得到了很大的启发,在原有基础上不断注入新的观念和元素。同时,孔子图像也不仅仅出自虔诚的儒士之手,不少推崇道教和佛教的文人和画家(或兼而有之)也创作了不少有关孔子的作品。在这些作品中,对于孔子的诠释又出现了新的变化,如孔子与道教始祖老子的关系等等。唐代对孔子及儒学的尊崇达到了另一个高峰。虽然事实上儒家学说再也没有能够形成一家独尊的态势,但无论佛道如何兴盛或者统治者的个人好尚怎样,儒家思想无疑已经成为后来整个封建社会的主导思想。孔子图像的表现在三教图像中的位次由于创作者立场的不同而呈现出不同的样式,但基本上在佛教和道教之后。独立的孔子图像继续发展,官方对于孔子的尊崇在唐玄宗时达到一个顶峰,孔子被敕封为“文宣王”,孔子的形像也从此增加了一个“冕服孔子”的模式。宋真宗先后封孔子为“玄圣文宣王”和“至圣文宣王”,元代成宗时更封为“大成至圣文宣王”。宋元时期是包括人物画在内的中国古代绘画史的巅峰时期,在整个社会儒学风气的影响和统治阶级的支持推动下,许多知名画家也参与到孔子图像的创作当中,一方面大大提高了孔子图像的艺术水准,另一方面也由于许多画家往往能不囿于前人的程式而表达出自己对于孔子的理解,所以也为诠释孔子提供了新的视角。在宋代,民间关于孔子的相貌而衍生出来的“七陋”说逐渐形成,并成为后来描绘孔子图像尤其是肖像类图像的主要依据。另外,随着版画技术的成熟和普及,最早手绘形式的情节式的“孔子圣迹图”开始以版画的形式流行开来。“孔子圣迹图”中的孔子形象从衣着、姿态和表情都有着典型的图式。明清两代的孔子被重新定位到“至圣先师”上来,是“圣人”、“先师”,不再是“文宣王”。其间虽然有清世祖顺治二年封孔子为“大成至圣文宣王先师”,但不久又改回“至圣先师”。“冕服孔子”的形像在官方语汇中被取消,太庙中的孔子像也一度被撤除,重新以早期的“神位”的形式进行祭拜。但包括“冕服”样式在内的孔子塑像在其它场所和广大民间得到了延续。明清时代的孔子图像基本延续了宋元的模式,没有多少突破和发展。一方面肖像式的孔子“七陋”的特征基本被固定下来,或者仅仅是对于早期的“宣圣遗像”、“孔子行教像”进行翻刻的石刻画,不但泥于前人,而且艺术水准也差强人意；另一方面,“孔子圣迹图”虽然出现了不同的版本,甚至一些比较知名的画家也参与到手绘本“孔子圣迹图”的制作当中,但除了某些细节的变动、西方艺术因素的引入和艺术水准的差异外,并没有对传统的“孔子圣迹图”做出根本的突破。“三教像”题材的作品尤其是卷轴画在这个时期出现了一些重要画家和作品。画面中三教形像“释-道一儒”的位次已然固定,只是在某些作品中虽然位次不变,但出于画家个人情感因素,对老子往往相对侧重。孔子往往被描绘成一位谦逊的世俗老者,多从神态和衣着处理等方面将其表现为一位现实中人,而释迦和老子则表现为骨骼奇伟而又睿智博大的世外神仙。不过,在民间的某些习俗中依然将孔子视为神仙之一。随着孔子崇拜的民间化和多样化,孔子图像在已经被熟知的符号化之外又出现了更多的表现媒材和形式。对于孔子形像的过度阐释和重构事实上在一定程度上使得人们开始不再拘泥于孔子具体形貌的刻划而仅仅将其视为儒学或者说孔子思想和人格的某种视觉符号。更多还原

【Abstract】 ABSTRACT:Visual expression of Confucius which is mainly made as a flat image or a sculpture is a special example of ancient China’s ideology,culture and art. Confucius Ideology is the main body of Chinese ideology and culture especailly in Feudal China. It has effected every detal of Chinese society deeply. Thus Confucius has become a typical sign of Chinese traditional ideology, culture and art as Confucianism rose and fell during the Feudal Sociey. Since visual portraits and stories were considered very important to make the people well-educated and have polite manners, painting and making images and sculptures of Confucius is necessary for the ruling class during the course of publicizing Confucianism. At the same time, Confucius was also admired by his offsprings as a great ancestor as well as a great thinker, a teacher and a sage of all time. People from the ruling class to common civilians mostly admired Confucius and many great painter and sculptors and common ones took part in the work of making images of sculptures of sculptures of Confucius. Different styles and materials conseiquently appeared. The were maily of two kinds, of Confucius’portrait and of his stories. Actually, both the two kinds of the images and sculptures of Confucius have been more than Confucius himeself. They reflect the deconstructions and reconstructions of the status and meanings of Confucius as well as the relationship of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism in different dynasties and periods. We can know something about the figure paintings in ancient China by studying the images of Confucius. But the study of the images and sculptures of Confucius is not only of Confucianism or of the history of art, it is interdisciplinary.I would like to begin my study with the previous documents in which the looking of Confucius was described and try to find out the reasons of the way of descriptions which, I believe, should be more believable than those in the documents written by later confucians. The status of culture and art and related Archaeological discoveries are also seriously considered in my study to find out what real Confucius should be like. I will try to find out how and why Confucius was graduallly made up (especially from Han Dynasty)with the help of the early and later documents and art history. Since no real images of sculptures of Confucius have been found, the early murals in the palaces and tamples provide us the possibilities of the images of Confucius after his death. We have found many paintings,mural and sculptures before Han Dynasty which can help us to have general impression of the images of Confucius.A great number of relief stone sculptures which are usually considered as paintings have been found in many porvinces of China. In many of them images of Confucius are found. They are the main origins of many of the later images of Confucius.In Han Dynasty, all other schools of thoughts were abandoned and Confucianism was worshiped alone by the ruling class. The Han confucians began to describe a new Confucius in documents and pictures probably according to the orders of the emperors and the need of delivering Confucianism. This may be the first and most important apotheosis of Confucius. Confucius meeting with Laozi is most popular theme in the stone sculptures which is quite different from the origin story. In the origin story, Confucius went to meet Laozi who is much older than Confucius to ask for some knowledge or rule of the universe. The main idea of this story is to show how wise and knowledgeable Laozi was. But in Han stone sculptures, Confucius is the leading role who is described as a kind, polite and diligent old man-even as old as Laozi-who is usually followed by some of his students. Confucius is usually described much more carefully than others. Although there are a few differences between the stone sculptures, the stories of Confucius are very easy to be identified from others because there are some fixed figures and rules in them. It is obvious that the images are based on one or two examples which may be drawn by some great artists or outstanding workers. The images helped common people who were not able to read and understand Confucianism document to know and understand Confucius and his thoughts. But at the same time, the images also deprived people of their chances to understand Confucius in different ways.Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties in Chinese history is a great period of social unrest and emancipation. The awakenings of individuals and art are two of the most important features. All these had deeply influenced the images of Confucius. During this period, the status and meanings were doublted widely. Also, the arsing of Taoism and Buddhish had great influence on Confucius,too. The three religions learned from each other,especiallly Taoism and Confucianism had learned much from Buddhism. For instance, both Confucianism and Taoism learned from Buddhism to make sculptures of Confucius and Laozi and other important figures of the two religions. Not only Confucians drew images or made sculptures of Confucius. So we can see that there were quite different kinds of types of Confucius then. In some works, Confucius was not the leading role but made to contrast someone else like Laozi.Although Confucius was not regarded he was in Han Dynasty, he was still highly respected by emperors of Tang Dynasty and their people. No matter how glorious and important Taoism and Buddhism became in Tang Dynasty, Confucianism had much attentions from the ruling class to consolidate their regime and enlighten (or tame in anther word) their people. From Tang Dynasty, the tend of Three-in-one of the three religions was clear. The rulers would rather to make the three religions to live in peace. This ideal was expressed widely in paintings and sculpture. But Confucius was generally less important than Laozi and Shakya. Shakya was mostly the most important. Confucius was first canonized in Tang Dynasty as The Lord Propagator of Culture and since then he had a new looking with clothings of a real king which made Confucius further than what he was really like in his time.Emperors of Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty respected Confucius even more than Tang emperors. They recanonized Confucius three times and gave him three new callings which were longer and more important than The Lord Propagator of Culture. More paintings and sculptures of Confucius were required to provide and some great artists like Ma Yuan in Southern Song Dynasty took part in this work. They expressed their own understandings of Confucius and created many different and excellent works. And during Song Dynasty, Seven-ugliness about Confucius looking appeared in common people. It makes images or sculptures of Confucius more easily to make and identify. It is said that the first Drawings of Confucius’ Saint Deeds were drew an painter in Yuan Dynasty and even in Song Dynasty, some experts believe that there had been some works like these. From Ming Dynasty, Confucius was no longer as honored as before. He was deprived of the canonition of Tang Dynasty as The Lord Propagator of Culture and was renamed as Pioneer Teacher or so. There was only a change made by Shunzhi, an emperor of early Qing Dynasty who again called Confucius The Lord Propagator of Culture, but soon he changed his idea and called Coufucius Pioneer Teacher again. The sculpture in Congfucius Temple was also asked to be replaced by a name board (Wei in Chinese)which was widely used before late Han Dynasty. But many types of images and sculptures of Confucius including Confucius in a king’s dressing were tolerated by the rulers and copied in society. Portraits of Confucius were imatated from the previous and most of them were in low level. Quite a few paintings of Three-religion-in-one were painted in the two dynasties and Confucius was always expressed as a real old man compared with the other two who were painted as two supernatural beings. Yes in folk activities, Confucius was still regarded as a god. At the same time, different kind of images and sculptures of Confucius began to appear. Confucius was worshipped in more ways than before.更多还原