【作者】 朱法武；

【导师】 陈尚胜；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中外关系史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 中琉传统封贡关系自明初建立以来,存续长达五百余年的时间。其间,明清王朝与琉球逐步建立、发展起密切的封贡关系。同时,双方的封贡关系也先后遭遇日本、西方势力等外力的冲击,从而呈现出独特的特点。本文采取历史唯物主义的观点,以明清时期中琉封贡关系的发展、嬗变为切入点,对其进行多层面的考察,分析明清王朝、琉球面对外力冲击时的立场和应对策略,阐释中琉封贡关系的特点及走向解体的根本原因,并进一步揭示中国传统封贡体系在外力冲击下凸显出的消极性、局限性等特点。通过对此问题的探讨,以期有助于学界对中琉封贡关系及中国传统封贡体系作进一步的深入研究。本文根据明清中琉封贡关系遭受外力冲击的阶段性特点分为六章。第一章是导论部分。本章通过总结国内外学者对中国传统封贡关系的研究成果和不足提出全文的研究思路。中外学者对传统封贡关系的研究大都围绕着中国与具体朝贡国封贡关系的建立与发展层面；在近代中外关系变化问题上,学者对于中国与周邻各国封贡关系解体的研究比较充分。就前一方面研究而论,人们的视角主要集中于对封贡关系建立、发展过程中当事国双边因素的研究,而对第三者或当事者以外的因素及影响考察不足；就后者研究而言,人们思考的重点放置在封贡关系的解体过程及后果,但忽略了在此之前封贡关系发展过程中当事国对于外力因素的了解和应对策略。本文将中琉封贡关系放置于长时段的历史发展过程中进行考察,探讨中琉封贡关系建立过程中明清王朝和琉球各自的立场,考察外力冲击下中琉封贡关系发生嬗变并最终走向解体的原因,揭示这一过程反映出的中琉封贡关系的新特点。第二章阐述了明清时期中琉封贡关系的建立、发展过程及其基本内容。明初,明太祖重视琉球在海洋中的战略地理位置,遣使诏谕其入贡,将琉球纳入到封贡体系中,以构建防御倭寇的海防体系。琉球当时处于分裂状态,中山、山南、山北三国为了获取明朝的支持,取得对其他两国的优势,都积极响应明朝诏谕,遣使入贡,双方的封贡关系顺利建立并平稳发展。清朝政权建立伊始,即诏谕琉球等周边邻国入贡,构建以其为中心的封贡体系,以此证明清政权的正统性,同时打击反清势力。琉球面临中国复杂的政治局势,为国家安全计,采取了灵活的“等距离外交”策略,保持和清朝的距离。直到“三藩之乱”平定、清朝统治稳固后,清琉之间方建立起稳定的封贡关系。根据封贡体系的理念、原则,明清王朝对中琉封贡关系的基本内容作了详细的规定,并在贡道、贡期、封贡贸易、册封等方面给予琉球优厚的待遇。琉球按照规定按期入贡、请封,依托封贡贸易积极发展东亚海域的中介贸易,并通过派遣官生入明清国子监学习,积极吸取先进的中国文化。第三章探讨了日本对明琉封贡关系的冲击以及明琉两国的反应、对策等。因地缘相近,日琉之间长期存在着经济、文化上的交流,明中期后,日本势力在琉球逐渐增强。明初,明朝对日琉关系即有所认知,明宣宗曾尝试利用琉球的中介渠道恢复与日本的封贡关系。嘉靖倭患时期,明琉在保持东亚海域稳定、维护封贡关系正常发展方面有着共同利益,双方在平定倭寇问题上采取了合作的立场。倭患也对明琉封贡关系产生了冲击,明琉之间在册封问题上出现了“领封”和“颁封”的争论。日本发动侵略朝鲜的壬辰战争后,明朝利用琉球获取日本方面的情报,琉球因为受到日本的武力威胁,也将明琉封贡关系作为国家安全的保障,积极为明朝搜集、传递日本情报。壬辰战争后,明朝采取更为严厉、消极的海防策略,减少与海外国家的联系；琉球更感受到日本的威慑,决意进一步密切明琉封贡关系以保证国家安全。明琉双方在“领封”、“颁封”问题上再次发生争论。日本萨摩藩侵占琉球后,在琉球实行隐蔽性统制政策,将琉球作为明、日贸易的中介。明朝因为国力衰落和其所实行的消极海禁政策,没有采用有效手段救援琉球,而采取了将琉球暂时排除出封贡体系之外的策略。其后双方在形式上又逐渐恢复正常交往。琉球在日本的压力之下,采取了隐瞒日琉关系的策略。明琉封贡关系开始出现疏远的迹象。第四章主要探讨清道咸时期西方势力对清琉封贡关系的冲击以及清朝、琉球的应对策略。鸦片战争后,清朝被迫与西方各国签订不平等条约,开放通商口岸,割让香港,给予西方国家最惠国待遇、领事裁判权等。琉球也遭受到西方势力的侵扰。英法等国的军舰不断抵达琉球测量海道,绘制地图。英法并且派遣传教士、医生等至琉居住,搜集琉球情报,并力图通过琉球来打开日本国门。琉球为此向清朝求援。清朝强调清琉之间的封贡关系,承担起对琉球的道德责任,与西方各国展开交涉。在交涉过程中,朝廷与地方官员在交涉理念、交涉方式等方面开始产生分歧。清朝因为自身国力的衰落,只能采取劝谕、开导的方式说服英法等国,而没有有效的外交手段相配合,所以交涉未能取得成效。在此情形下,琉球为在西方势力冲击下求得生存,先后与美、法、荷兰等国签订了通商贸易条约,被迫进入西方近代条约体系,同时采取了优待西方国家船只、破坏传统海难救助定例等许多违背清琉封贡关系的行动以维护自身安全。这说明清琉封贡关系在西方势力冲击下开始出现松动。第五章对中日关于琉球归属问题的交涉进行研究。日本在明治维新后推行对外扩张的大陆政策,并将清朝封贡体系下的朝鲜、琉球等国作为其侵略的主要目标。同治十三年(1874),日本借口琉球漂流民被台湾土著所杀,侵略台湾,清政府承认其行动为保护子民,遂自认为从法理上得到了对琉球的所有权。其后日本加快了吞并琉球的步伐：阻止琉球继续向清朝朝贡；其外交事务交由日本外务省处理；废止福州琉球馆；禁止琉球人偷渡到清朝求援。光绪五年(1879),日本在琉球宣布废藩置县,正式吞并琉球。琉球不甘心亡国,密遣使节向清朝求援。清朝为此对日展开长达数年的交涉。清朝强调清琉传统封贡关系的长期存续,以证明琉球为其藩属国,同时又尝试运用近代国际法论证琉球为独立国家,日本无权吞并。日本则认为自“庆长之役”后,琉球即成为日本实质上的属国,清琉封贡关系不能证明清朝对琉球的权利。清、日交涉最后失败,琉球亡国,长达五百余年的中琉传统封贡关系就此终结。第六章是全文的总结,对明清时期中琉封贡关系建立、发展及演变过程中的特点进行了分析、归纳。明清王朝与琉球所建立的封贡关系,既呈现出传统封贡体系的一般特点,同时也体现双方现实利益的考虑；从明清中琉封贡关系中的“领封”与“颁封”之争看,明清王朝与琉球的立场具有明显的不同,明清王朝并未意识到密切中琉封贡关系与国家利益之间的关系；从明朝对日琉关系的认知及反应看,明朝对日琉关系有所了解,但没有进行深入探究,未采取有效的应对措施;从“庆长之役”后明朝对待明琉封贡关系的立场看,明朝采取了消极的防御策略,通过将琉球暂时排除出封贡体系以维护海防安全,明朝各社会阶层对“庆长之役”的反应还体现了明琉封贡关系超越国家界限的地域性特点；清朝自身面对西方势力的冲击时,清朝的封贡体系对藩属国与敌对国家交往缺乏有效的约束手段。琉球遇险则向清朝求援,遇害则对西方国家妥协,对外交涉带有实利的目的；清朝在与英法就琉球事件交涉时,其交涉原则与渠道既体现了传统封贡体系的特点,也反映了清朝涉外体制的变化；对琉球“两属”问题的认知,反映了明清中琉封贡关系的礼仪化特点和明清王朝敌国意识的淡薄；从日本吞并琉球后清朝对日交涉所采取的原则看,清朝既以清琉传统封贡关系为依据,又尝试利用近代国际法与日交涉。运用两种性质截然不同的外交交涉手段,显示出清朝在外力冲击下被迫逐渐接受西方近代条约体系、但又不放弃传统封贡关系的矛盾处境。明清时期的中琉传统封贡关系曾对明清王朝、琉球两国的友好交往产生了积极的作用,对维护东亚海域的和平稳定有着积极的影响。但在日本、西方势力的冲击下,双方的关系逐渐走向疏远,并最终解体。更多还原

【Abstract】 Since the establishment of the tributary relationship between Ming-Qing Dynasties and Ryukyu, it was survival up to 500 years. During the period, Ming-Qing dynasties and Ryukyu gradually established and developed a close relationship. Meanwhile, the tributary relationship had suffered the impact of external forces such as Japanese, Western forces, thus displaying it’s unique character. To exam the development and evolution of the tributary relationship deeply can reveal the Ming-Qing dynasties, Ryukyu’s position and strategies facing the external impact, reflect the basic causes of the tributary relationship’s disintegration.According to the Stage characteristics of the tributary relationship between the Ming-Qing Dynasties and Ryukyu under the impact of external forces, this content is divided into six chapters.ChapterⅠis the introduction section. By summing up the achievements and shortcomings of domestic and foreign scholars research on traditional tributary relationship, the content puts forward the view. The research has revolved around the establishment and development of the specific tributary relationship. Centering the changes of relations between modern China and foreign countries, scholars study more fully on the disintegration of the tributary relationship between China and the neighboring countries. About the former research, people focus on the establishment of tributary relationship and the development process of bilateral countries, while the study on the impact of the third party or other parties is inadequate; about the latter research, people focus on the disintegration and consequences of the tributary relationship, ignoring the response and strategies of the concerned countries facing the influence of the external factors in the development process of tributary relationship. Therefore, this article will investigate the tributary relationship of Ming-Qing dynasties and Ryukyu in a long historical period, exploring the position of the Ming-Qing dynasties and Ryukyu, examining the evolution and disintegration of the tributary relationship under the impact of external forces, revealing the new features of the tributary relationship.ChapterⅡdescribes establishment and development process of the tributary relationship and its basic elements. In the early Ming Dynasty, Chu Yuan-chang had taken attention to the strategic geographical location of Ryukyu, incorporating it into the tributary system in order to build a coastal defense system to defense Japanese pirates. At the time, Ryukyu was divided into Zhongshan, Shannan, Shanbei. In order to obtain the support of the Ming Dynasty, gaining the advantages over the other two countries, they actively sent envoys to tribute. The tributary relationship established and developed smoothly. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, it tried to build the tributary system in which it was the center, in order to prove the legitimacy of its regime and frustrate the hostile forces. So Qing Dynasty asked Ryukyu to tribute. Facing the complex political situation of the continent, Ryukyu adopted a flexible "equidistance diplomacy" strategy to maintain the distance from the Qing Dynasty. Until the "Sanfan Rebellion" was pacified and the Qing’s rule was solid, it was established a stable tributary relationship between Qing Dynasty and Ryukyu. Ming-Qing dynasties formulated the detailed provisions and give preferential treatment to the Ryukyu in tribute site, tribute period, canonization and trade. Ryukyu paid tribute and pleased canonization in accordance with the provisions, learning the advanced Chinese culture by sending persons to China.ChapterⅢexplores the impact of Japan to the tributary relationship of Ming-Ryukyu and the response, measures of the two countries. Because of the geographic proximity, there existed economic and cultural exchanges between Japan and Ryukyu for a long time. The Japanese forces expanded gradually in Ryukyu. Ming Dynasty noticed the relation. Xuande Emperor had tried to restore tributary relations with Japan through Ryukyu. During Jiajing period in which Japanese pirates was rampant, Ming Dynasty and Ryukyu shared common interests on maintaining stability in the East Asian Seas and the normal development of the tributary relationship, so the two sides adopted the cooperation position to suppress the pirates. But the pirates also influenced the tributary relationship. There begot a controversy on the canonization between Ming and Ryukyu. In Renchen War, Ming Dynasty tried to obtain information of Japan through Ryukyu. Facing the threat of Japanese force, Ryukyu relied on the tributary relationship as a guarantee of national security and actively gathered the information to pass to Ming Dynasty. After Renchen war, Ming Dynasty adopted a more severe coastal strategy to reduce contact with overseas forces. Ryukyu wanted to gain closer ties with Ming Dynasty in order to ensure national security. Ming Dynasty disputed with Ryukyu on the canonization again. Satsuma invaded and occupied Ryukyu. Ming Dynasty did not take effective measures to rescue the Ryukyu and excluded it temporarily from the tributary system. Then the two sides also gradually returning to normal contacts. Under the pressure of Japan, Ryukyu had to conceal the relationship with Japan. There began to appear signs of alienation in the tributary relationship.Chapter IV mainly discusses the impact of the western forces on the tributary relationship and countermeasures of Qing Dynasty and Ryukyu. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty was forced to sign unequal treaties with Western countries. Ryukyu was also subjected to Western forces. British and French warships continued to arrive in Ryukyu, making hydrographic measurements and maps. British and French also sent missionaries to live in Ryukyu, trying to open Japan’s doors through the Ryukyu Islands. Ryukyu plead the Qing Dynasty to help. Qing Dynasty began to start negotiations with the western countries and stressed that the tributary relationship and the moral responsibility to the Ryukyu. In the negotiation process, there appeared the differences on diplomatic principles and methods between the court and Local officials. Because the negotiations failed, Ryukyu was forced to sign trade treaties with the United States, France and the Netherlands. This shows that the tributary relationship was beginning to loosen.Chapter V investigates the Sino-Japan’s negotiations on the attribution of Ryukyu. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan adopted external expansion policy and regarded Ryukyu as its main objective of aggression. Tongzhi thirteen years (1874), Japan invaded Taiwan. Qing government confessed that Japan’s actions was to protect its people. Later, Japan accelerated the pace to annex Ryukyu. Guangxu five years (1879), Japan announced the Abolition of the han in Ryukyu and annexed Ryukyu formally. Ryukyu plead to Qing Dynasty for help. Qing Dynasty began to negotiate with Japan for a few years. Qing stressed that the tributary relationship between Qing and Ryukyu had survived for a long time, showing that the Ryukyu was its vassal state, while it tried to demonstrate Ryukyu an independent country according to modern international law. So Japan had no right to annex it. Japan insisted that the Ryukyu had become a vassal state of Japan in essence since "Qingchang battle". The tributary relationship could not prove the right of the Qing Dynasty on the Ryukyu. The negotiation failed finally. Ryukyu was annexed. The tributary relationship of Sino-Ryukyu was to end.Chapter VI is the summary to analysis and summarize the characteristics of tributary relationship between Ming-Qing Dynasties and Ryukyu. In the establishment process of the tributary relationship, Ming-Qing dynasties and Ryukyu both considered the interests of the reality. Viewing the dispute about Taking-Canonization and Dispatching-Canonization,the positions of the Ming-Qing dynasties and Ryukyu were different obviously. Ming-Qing Dynasties were not aware of closing Sino-Ryukyu relationship with the national interests. Ming dynasty noticed the Japan-Ryukyu relation but it did not conduct inquiry in-depth, failing to take effective response measures. After the Qingchang Battle, Ming Dynasty adopted a passive defense strategy by excluding Ryukyu from tributary system to protect coastal defense and security. Facing the impact of western forces itself, the tributary system was lack of effective means to proscribe the relations between vassal state and the hostile countries. Ryukyu seek help from the Qing dynasty while it was in distress, adopting a compromised method to the western countries when it faced pressure. Its’foreign representations embodied the profit purposes. When Qing Dynasty negotiated with the Anglo-French on the Ryukyu incident, its representation and channels not only embodied the principles of the tributary system, but also reacted changes in foreign-related institutions. The Ryukyu attribution issue reflected rituals of the characteristics in the relationship between Ming-Qing and Ryukyu. Ming-Qing dynasties had weak sense of the equal country. After Japan annexing Ryukyu, Qing Dynasty negotiated with Japan. It stressed the Qing-Ryukyu relationship based on traditional tributary system. At the same time, it tried to use modern international law to negotiate with Japan. The use of two different principles of diplomatic representations showed that Qing Dynasty was forced to accept the west modern treaty system gradually without abandoning the traditional tributary relations which made it in dilemma.The tributary relationship between Ming-Qing Dynasties and Ryukyu had friendly boosted mutual exchanges, Making a positive effect on the peace and stability in East Asia. But under the impact of Japan and western forces, the relationship became estrange gradually and died out eventually.更多还原