【作者】 张高臣；

【导师】 李文海；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 光绪朝34年间,正处在中国封建统治崩溃的前夜,是中国社会发生剧烈变动的一个时期：通过中法战争、中日战争和八国联军侵华战争,帝国主义的势力步步深入,中国社会迅速向着半殖民地半封建的性质转化。伴随着民族危机的加深和清王朝封建统治的日暮穷途,中国社会内部相继发生了洋务运动、维新变法运动、义和团运动和辛亥革命等具有重大意义的历史事件。与这些跌宕起伏的政治表象同步,这一时期中国社会也发生了史所少见的重大灾害,如1877-1878年惨绝人寰的“丁戊奇荒”、1879年甘肃里氏8级大地震、1882-1890年黄河连续9年漫决、1889年的全国性大水灾、19世纪末叶连年发生的顺直水灾、戊戌维新时期以潦为主的全国灾荒、义和团运动时期以早为主的全国灾荒等等,无不在中国灾荒史上写下了令人怵目惊心的一页。面对如此严重的自然灾害,处于穷途末路的封建王朝是如何应对的?效果如何?民间社会对救荒问题又有什么反应?重灾频发对当时社会产生了怎样的影响?当时社会各阶层对灾荒问题又是如何认识的?正确认识这些问题,既有助于深化对光绪朝历史的研究,又可为我国当前的防灾救荒事业提供借鉴,具有重要的历史和现实意义。要正确分析和评价上述问题,首先要对光绪朝灾况有一个宏观的认知。论文依据大量的档案资料,并借鉴近人的相关研究成果,采用统计分析和比较的方法,通过对光绪朝自然灾害的种类和频次,光绪朝自然灾害的空间和时间分布,光绪朝自然灾害的破坏强度等几个方面的分析,最终得出结论：光绪时期,大洪水、大地震、大旱灾、大瘟疫、大风、奇寒汇聚在一起,交相并发,危害奇重,是中国近代社会中自然灾害发生极为频繁,自然灾害打击面极广,自然灾害破坏程度极为严重的一个时期,“茫茫浩劫,亘古未闻,历观廿一史所载,灾荒无此惨酷”①,就是对整个光绪朝灾况的恰当总结。频发的严重自然灾害对于广大人民群众固然是深重的灾难,对于封建统治阶级亦是严重的威胁。从自身的利益和安危出发,光绪朝仿行前代采取了诸多荒政举措。论文在对清代前中期形成的荒政制度进行简要叙述的基础上,以大量的第一手档案资料为依据,着力对光绪朝的荒政举措、荒政效果及荒政实施的制度性缺陷展开分析。通过分析可知,光绪年间,朝廷和一些地方大员为防灾救荒付出了不少努力,并取得了一定的防灾救荒实效,对此应予以肯定。然而就荒政的整体后果来看,整个国家范围内出现的水利失修、仓储制度衰败、灾赈过程中弊窦丛生、灾害发生后饥荒严重等现象,表明当时看似完整有效的荒政机制实质已处于失控状态。造成这种失控的主要原因在于：其一,中央集权的政治权力日渐衰微,封建朝廷再也无法利用自身的政治权威组织起全社会的力量进行有效的防灾、抗灾和救灾斗争了。其二,国家财政状况的好坏和防灾、救灾投入的多寡直接影响着政府荒政的实际效果。然而,由于外国资本—帝国主义的侵掠,光绪年间的国家财政异常匮乏,经常项目下的防灾支出额度被不断地压缩,临时性支出则非到万不得已时不予拨款,这无疑又加大了灾害发生的可能性和灾害发生后果的严重性。其三,光绪年间的官场腐败极其严重,救灾钱粮受到多方侵渔,更是严重影响着荒政的实际效果。多方面因素的交织,决定了光绪年间的政府荒政渐趋颓废。然而,政府荒政的日渐颓废,尤其是灾害发生后“官赈”能力的不足,客观上为近代“义赈”的兴起提供了发展空间。近代义赈是指与官方主持的灾赈——“官赈”相区别的,由民间自行组织劝赈、自行募集经费,并自行向灾民直接散发救灾物资的活动。尽管近代义赈实质上仍是一种民间救灾行为,但它与传统的民间捐赀助赈活动有着本质的区别,它是对传统民间捐赀助赈的一种继承,更是一种超越。近代义赈的兴起是当时社会多方面因素合力作用的产物：其一,官赈不力客观上为近代义赈的兴起让出了活动空间：其二,以善堂为代表的传统慈善机构赈灾功能的传承；其三,近代“江南善士网络”和东南地缘经济共同体的形成,为近代义赈的兴起和发展奠定了组织和经济基础；其四,西方传教士的对华赈灾活动对具有爱国热情的慈善人士的影响和刺激；其五,一批具有资本主义性质的企业和企业家群体的参与；其六,报纸、电报等近代传播媒介在救灾领域的介入。所有这些,促成了近代义赈的兴起。尽管近代义赈兴起后,受到众多的非议和阻挠,但其以新生事物特有的顽强生命力,不断冲破阻碍向前发展,且由于救灾效果显著而逐渐得到地方大员和朝廷的认同,并在救灾方法和救灾形式上对传统的国家救荒机制产生了强烈的冲击,促成了官赈向义赈倾斜的“官义合办”救灾形式的出现。重大自然灾害频发,不能不对光绪朝社会产生强烈的冲击。论文选取了光绪朝自然灾害与人口变迁,光绪朝自然灾害与社会经济,光绪朝自然灾害与社会冲突三个方面展开了集中的分析阐述：关于光绪朝自然灾害与人口变迁。论文分析指出,频繁、严重的灾荒造成了巨量的人口死亡,减缓了人口增长的速度,这是光绪朝人口增长缓慢的一个主因。同时,每次大灾均造成天文数字的灾民以不同的流动形态和流向逃荒外流。这种灾民流动,既带有传统社会的一般特点,又反映出了光绪朝社会变迁的一些基本特征。与以上两点相联系,大量人口的死亡和外流,不可避免地引起了灾区,甚至整个社会人口年龄结构、性别结构的失衡,并对灾民的身体素质和思想意识产生了十分消极的影响。关于光绪朝自然灾害与社会经济。光绪朝大灾频发对社会经济影响极大：其一,灾害发生后,“减负”和赈济政策的实施,既减少了封建国家的财政收入,又增加了其财政支出,不可避免地使财政收支失衡的局面愈加恶化。其二,重灾频发严重破坏了农田生态系统,无情地摧毁了农民生存、农业发展的基本条件;它既造成了广大农民物质财富的巨大损失,又导致了劳动力和农用生产工具的大量缺失及大片耕地的荒芜；灾荒年间地价的大跌和粮价的暴涨,又使农村生产关系和灾民生存条件进一步恶化。各方面因素共同对灾区农业经济的恢复和发展产生严重障碍。其三,中国以初级产品为主的出口商品结构决定了,大灾荒发生,必然导致出口贸易额急遽下降。与此同时,作为进口商品主要消费者的广大民众,因受自然灾害打击而购买力锐减,也会导致商品进口额的大幅降低,从而使整个贸易状况陷入萧条。然而,粮食进口却是例外。光绪年间中国成为粮食进口大国是一个不争的事实,它是自然条件以及国内外经济、政治诸因素共同作用的结果。我们不能否认西方列强入侵导致商品性农业畸形发展的影响；也不能否认国际粮商对中国的粮食倾销活动的影响；更不能忽视生齿日繁的压力。但是,如果完全否认自然灾害的影响而一味地强调上述因素,也有失偏颇。因为,光绪年间大规模自然灾害频频发生,且每一次都引起了粮食的大量进口,如果对此忽略不计,是很难说得通的。关于光绪朝自然灾害与社会冲突。光绪年间,尽管朝廷和各地方大员对灾荒引发社会冲突事宜始终保持着高度的警惕,然而,由于救灾不力,因灾引发的社会冲突持续不断。这些因灾引发的社会冲突事件可以大体概括为：因水利纠纷引发的社会冲突；灾民请愿求赈的和平斗争；灾民抢米索食的原始性斗争；灾民为保卫合法劳动果实而掀起的抗捐、抗税、抗粮斗争；因灾引发的反洋教斗争；由灾害引起的“匪患”；会党及革命党人利用灾民起事等七种类型。这些由灾害引发的各种类型的社会冲突,互相交织,此伏彼起,连绵不断,自内而外,严重动摇着清王朝的统治,加快了清王朝覆灭的速度。面对不断爆发的大灾奇荒,对光绪朝社会具有重要影响的清流派、洋务派、戊戌维新派、资产阶级革命派等政治派别均从民生角度给予了较多的关注。但由于所处时代特征的差异和各自立场的不同,他们的灾荒观中既存在共性,又各具特色。其中,清流派的灾荒思想具有“头痛医头,脚痛医脚”的“修补式”特点；洋务派的灾荒观则具有明显的“师夷”特色；戊戌维新派的灾荒观表现出了较为清晰的“维新”特征；资产阶级革命派的灾荒观则表现出“标本兼治”的革命特色。当然,他们的灾荒观中或多或少都强调了“天象示警”问题,说明他们从某种程度上还没有脱出“天象示警”的传统灾荒观的藩篱,反映了其在灾荒问题认识上的局限性。更多还原

【Abstract】 The year of 1875-1908, with China in the reign of emperor GuangXu, was the eve of the collapse of the feudal rule and also a period in which radical changes took place in China. In the wars lanched against China by France, Japan and the Eight-power Allied Forces, imperial force made its way into China step by step and China was transforming itself into a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society. With national crises being severe and the feudal rule of Qing Dynasty approaching the end of its days, such events of great historic significance took place in China as the Westernization Movement, the Reform Movement, theYihetuan Movement and the Revolution of 1911. But at the same time, some startling catastrophes, rare in history record, hit China hard. They were the severe famine in 1877-1878, tragic beyond compare in human history, the earthquake of 8 magnitude on the Richter scale in Gansu, the flooding of the Yellow river for 9 years running during 1882-1890, the nation-wide flood in 1889, the flood hitting Shunzhi successively in the end of 19th century, the nation-wide famine caused by waterlogging during the Reform Movement of 1898, and the crop-failure caused by drought during the Yihetuan Movement. Faced with such severe catastrophes, how did the feudal government in an impasse deal with the situation? What were the results? How did the non-governmental communities react? What effects did these catastrophes have on the society? What did the social strata of that time think of the situation?A sound comprehension of these problems will not only help study further the history of China of GuangXu’s time, but also help today’s sending relief to the catastrophe-stricken areas. Therefore, in this sense, it is of great historic and practical significance.A correct analysis and evaluation of these problems has to involve the macroscopic cognition of those catastrophes that took place those years. This thesis bases itself on a mountain of file data and the related research achievements of the modern time, adopts the methods of statistical analysis and comparison, studies the catastrophes from the aspects such as the type, the frequency, the distribution in space and time, and the destruction intensity, and draws the conclution that such catastrophes as flood, earthquake, drought, pestilence, windstorm and freezing coldness all together made the years of GuangXu’s reign, the hardest hit period by catastrophes in history.It’s true that people suffered a lot in the severe catastrophes, but at the same time, these catastrophes posed a great threat to the feudal rule. Therefore, for the sake of its own interest and security, the government followed its predecessors and took measures to deal with these catastrophes. The thesis covers briefly the famine system formed during the early and middle years of Qing Dynasty, and then focuses on the measures that GuangXu’s government took to deal with the catastrophes and their effects as well. It can be seen that although the system was still working, as far as the effects are concerned, the seemingly complete and effective system was actually out of control, given the facts that water conservancy facilities were out of repair, that the granary system was on the wane,that corrupt practice was common in relief work and that famine became more severe after the catastrophes. The following reasons helped explain this out-of-control. First, the centralized feudal political system was on the wane, which made the government unable to organize large-scale effective campaigns to take precaution againat catastrophes, and to relieve the stricken areas. Second, the state finance determined the effects of these campaigns. As a matter of fact,with the invasion and plunder of foreign capitalism and imperialism, the state finance of GuangXu government was actually in deficiency, and the conventional expenditure aimed at taking precautions against catastrophes had been cut down, which in turn led to much likelihood of catastrophes and serious consequences. Thirdly, official corruption in GuangXu government was extremely serious, and the money and grain spared for relief was thus seized by force, which undoubtedly affected the efforts made to deal with the catastrophes. With all these factors mingled GuangXu government’s famine system was actually titular.Just as a coin has two sides, the failure of the state famine system provided opportunities for the development of modern relief system. This relief system was organized by non-governmental communities to raise fund and send direct relief to the people of the stricken areas. This system, by nature non-governmental, was substantially different from the traditional relief practice, with some inheritance from tradition, but surpassing it. The rising of the modern relief system was the result of the interaction of multiple social factors. First, the failure of the state famine system left some space for the development of the non-governmental communities. Second, the traditional charity activity was inherited, typical of those charity organizations. Third, the network of South charitians and the south-eastern economic association laid an organic and economic foundation for the rising and development of the modern relief system. Fourth, the relief activities organized by the western missionaries stimulated those Chinese who did some charitable work to take a stand against the westerners. Fifth, some enterprises and entrepreneurs characteristic of capitalism got themselves involved, and finally, the modern media arose and played a part in the relief work. All these factors contributed to the rising of the modern relief system during the reign of Emperor GuangXu. This modem relief system, confronted with reproach and obstruction, developed itself and was accepted because of its notable work in relief and pounded at the traditional state relief system:for one thing, the non-governmental relief system affected the state system, for another, it led to the joint work of governmental and non-governmental relief practice.The frequent catastrophes undoubtedly had great effects on politics, economy and society of that time. The thesis fully develops the following three effects on population change and migration,on economy and on social conflicts.Firstly, these catastrophes led to population change and migration. First, the frequent severe catastrophes caused a mass of life loss, slowed down the population growth rate, and became the major cause of the slow population growth. Second, because of poor relief work, almost each catastrophe led to tremendous numbers of its victims migrating to different places in different ways. The victim migration in GuangXu’s time had both the general traits of the conventional victim migration in previous times, and some characteristics of modern social changes in China, and this consisted of one of the important aspects that can help learn about the modern Chinese society. And then, the life loss and population migration caused by these catastrophes not only led to the imbalance in age and gender structures among the population, but also affectd greatly the victims both physically and mentally.Secondly, the frequent severe catastrophes had tremendous effects on the state economy of GuangXu’s time. First, the frequent catastrophes led to the increase of state financial expenditure while the financial income declined, which inevitably worsened the state finance. Second, the fact that China was a semi-colonial, semi-feudal agricultural country determined the destruction intensity to the agriculture. The catastrophes led to great material loss, and at the same time destroyed the essentials on which farmers lived and agriculture developed, for these catastrophes destroyed the ecology of the farming land and led to labor inadequacy and farming land lying waste and land price slumped and grain price soared, which worsened the rural production relations and the victims’ living conditions. Third, the severe catastrophes affected advesely both the domestic trade and foreign trade. China’s export commodities were mainly primary products, which was enormously affected by natural conditions. These catastrophes inevitably led to the drop in volume of export trade while those people who were the major consumers of the import commodities were hit by these catastrophes and their purchasing power declined, which would reduce the volume of import trade and thus led to the trade depression. The grain importation, however, was an exception. There was no doubt that China in GuangXu’s time was a major country importing grain, which was the interaction of natural conditions, economical and political influence from home and abroad. We can’t neglect the fact that the western invasion caused the abnormal agricultural development in China, nor can we overlook the fact that the international grain traders dumped grain to China, nor can we ignore the pressure from the growing population. But, to be impartial, we can’t overlook the effects of these catastrophes for after each catastrophe, GuangXu government imported enormous amount of grain and this could not be neglected.Thirdly, the catastrophes led to continual social conflicts. When catastrophes took place, GuangXu government had to take measures and even employed armed forces to maintain social stabillity, but vainly in most cases due to the poor relief work. Generally speaking, these conflicts induced by catastrophes can be classified as follows:conflicts induced by disagreements on water conservancy facilities, the petition for relief launched by the victims, the victims’primitive fight for grain and food, the victims’refusal to pay levies and taxes, the struggle against the western missionary, the banditry induced by catastrophes, and the armed struggle started by revolutionaries and some organizations. These conflicts, interweaven and non-stop, stired violently the reign of Qing government and speeded up its complete collapse.Faced with the frequent catastrophes, such political groups that had great impact on the society in GuangXu’s time as the Uncontaminated Group, the Westernization Group, the Reform Group and the Revolution Group, showed solicitude for the people’s livelihood. But as they took different stands, their opinions about famine had something in common and some distinguishing features. As to how to deal with the catastrophes, for instance, the Uncontaminated Group advocated the idea of treating the head when the head aches and treating the foot when the foot hurts, the westernization Group held the opinion of learning from the Westerners, the Reform Group believed in reforming and the Revolution Group thought that the problem should be treated by looking into both its root cause and symptoms. Certainly, they stressed more or less in their opinions about catastrophes that these catastrophes were warning given by the Heaven, which showed that in some sense they did not break away from the traditional comprehension of catastrophes and that they still had their limitations about this problem.更多还原