【作者】 盛利；

【导师】 陈尚胜；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 专门史， 2009， 博士

【副题名】以19世纪60年代至19世纪80年代中期为中心

【摘要】 19世纪下半叶,清朝政权步入他的最后阶段,而以清朝政权为中心建立起来的封贡体系,面对列强的重重侵噬,也是千疮百孔、摇摇欲坠。即便如此,清朝统治者还是想尽办法应对危局,苟延残喘。本文论述的主要内容即发生在这样的背景下。朝鲜作为清朝封贡体系中最重要的藩属国,对于封贡体系的存在以及东北地区的安全都至关重要。然而,法美英以及日本等列强对朝鲜的侵扰,引起了朝鲜的严重不安,并进而殃及身为宗主国的清朝和整个封贡体系的稳定。从19世纪70年代开始,清政府一改传统封贡体制下不轻易干预藩属国外交内政的做法,开始实施新的朝鲜策略,一直到20世纪初,在此期间,清朝对朝鲜的政策偏离了传统的轨道。本文主要围绕19世纪60年代到19世纪80年代中期,清朝对朝鲜外交体制的变通展开论述。本文论述的对朝鲜外交体制的变通,主要包括以下内容:19世纪60年代以来,以礼部为中心的中央涉朝外交系统,逐渐被北洋大臣、总理衙门以及驻日公使所取代,尤其是北洋大臣更是发挥了决定性的作用。而以敕使为主的遣使系统则一步步为近代色彩的使节所替代,从最初的特使马建忠、马建常出使朝鲜,一直到驻朝商务委员陈树棠。这种推陈出新的背后,展示了中国外交近代化的步履。但由于这种近代化的主观目的是想维护日益落后、不合适宜的封贡体制,因而这一时期外交近代化几乎无法逃避最终失败的命运。本文着力从体制和制度的角度,试图解释这种变通给清鲜之间的外交传统带来了什么样的变化和变化背后所蕴含的近代意义,以及最终失败的原因。围绕1870年代到1885年清朝对朝鲜外交体制的变通这一主题,本文主要分为以下章节来展开论述:首先为导论。导论部分主要研究晚清对朝鲜外交体制变通的学术意义和研究方法。通过对中外学术界关于清鲜政治关系研究概况的回顾,指出以往的清鲜关系研究往往从欧风西雨和日本这两种势力介入朝鲜等外部因素来进行研究和讨论,缺乏从清朝本身的角度,深入研究在外部背景下,清朝是如何具体应变和作为的。而晚清外交制度史的研究往往简单归结为由传统向近代的转型,而忽略了在质变过程中的量变的作用。据此,文章将晚清对朝鲜外交体制的变通作为研究对象,深入考察在近代大变局下,封贡体制如何一步步走向崩溃,尤其揭示在这一过程中,清朝作为“天朝上国”,面对来自内部和外部的对封贡体制的挑战,是如何应对的,以及在外交体制上相应发生了什么样的变化。在研究方法上,文章提出将宏观叙述和微观考察相结合,将中外关系史和外交制度史的研究方法相结合,做好横向和纵向的比较,就晚清对朝鲜外交体制的变通展开较为细致的研究。第一章主要介绍封贡体制在清鲜关系中的构建和机制。其中第一节主要介绍封贡体制在清鲜关系中的构建和发展。从建州女真开始,一直到清兵入关,再到康熙朝,清朝与朝鲜关系的发展经历了一个曲折的过程。随着双方实力的此消彼长,双方关系从最初的藩胡体制,到兄弟之盟,再到朝鲜俯首称臣,最终随着清政权统治的稳固,两者之间的封贡关系得以确立和稳定。第二节主要介绍了封贡体制下清朝政权内部涉朝机构设置的基本情况,主要包含三个部分:以礼部为中心的中央涉朝外交机构、清朝向朝鲜派遣的使节以及包含奉天、吉林地方行政系统的东北涉朝边务机构。第三节对本章内容作了简单的总结,指出了封贡体制在清鲜关系中体现的几个特点,如清鲜封贡关系非功利性的发展趋向;对朝贡礼仪的严格执行;礼部在清鲜封贡关系制度构架中的核心地位等。第二章主要讲述清朝劝导朝鲜开国和变通旧制。第一节介绍了总理衙门、北洋大臣、驻日公使在涉朝事务中决策地位的上升,由此也造成了礼部在涉朝事务中决策地位的下降,进而形成了总理衙门与北洋大臣主导朝鲜事务的局面。第二节详细介绍了清朝劝导朝鲜开国的诸多交涉环节,如丁日昌的奏议与李鸿章的“书信外交”;《朝鲜策略》对朝鲜政府的触动;签约前清鲜美三方的接触等。通过对清朝劝导朝鲜开国过程的详细研究,揭示了清政府如何对清鲜封贡体制的内容做出诸多变通。第三节对本章内容做出总结,指出总理衙门、北洋大臣主导朝鲜事务局面的形成,既是变通旧制的结果,又促进了清鲜传统体制的进一步变通。第三章主要介绍了特使的派遣和特使制度的形成,以及特使对朝鲜开国的影响。其中第一节讲述马建忠于1882年5月、6月两次赴朝,促成朝美、朝英、朝德通商条约的签订。第二节讲述朝鲜壬午兵变发生后,马建忠于1882年8月紧急赴朝。在朝期间,马建忠在大院君、开化派和日本等势力中间往来调和,最终力促清政府下定决心,抓捕大院君,平息朝鲜内乱。马建忠的两次出访都程度不同地触及到了清鲜之间的封贡体制。第三节则讲述了为了钤制外人、帮助朝鲜政府办理通商事宜,李鸿章派遣马建常常驻朝鲜,但由于封贡体制的影响,大大限制了马建常在朝鲜作用的发挥,最终不得不黯然回国。第四节对本章内容作出总结,指出马建忠、马建常作为特使出使朝鲜,具有过渡性、临时性的特征,一方面对传统体制有所突破,使之不同于封贡体制下的敕使;一方面又为传统体制所束缚,使其难以发挥真正推动清鲜关系近代化的作用。第四章介绍了《商民水陆贸易章程》的签订和驻朝商务委员制度的建立。其中第一节主要介绍了《商民水陆贸易章程》的签订,这是驻朝商务委员得以派遣的背景和基础。章程的签订体现了清朝“维藩服,扩利权”的指导思想,但同时也受到守旧派的极力反对。第二节主要介绍了驻朝商务委员陈树棠上任后所做的一些开创性工作,如修建公馆、开辟租界、交涉通商事务、保护华商、代表清政府与朝鲜进行外交交涉等。第三节则介绍了驻朝商务委员制度的建立,这些制度包括口岸委员制度、照会制度、会审制度等,近代外交制度的建立,体现了清鲜外交体制变通的实质特征。第四节讲述驻朝商务委员在朝鲜由于新旧体制的矛盾而造成的身份困惑。夹在封贡体制和近代体制的夹缝中,最终,由于形势的发展,陈树棠被撤回。第五节为本章小结,指出驻朝商务委员制度的建立,已经在客观效果上开始颠覆封贡体制下清鲜关系的部分观念和政策。比如,平等外交的观念的出现;重视利权和民生;旧制度的废止和近代制度的建立等等。由于驻朝商务委员的派遣和创立的制度所具备的近代因素,因而在对朝鲜外交体制变通的过程中具有里程碑式的意义。第五章是结论部分。对晚清对朝鲜外交体制变通做出总结,分别从晚清对朝鲜外交体制变通的发展脉络、晚清对朝鲜外交体制变通的近代意义、从清政府的外交决策分析清朝对朝鲜外交体制变通的失败原因等几方面对论文主题做了回顾、比较和分析,并且进行了较为深入的思考。提出晚清对朝鲜外交体制变通也是晚清外交近代化的组成部分,在变通过程中,对国家利益的认识和维护手段,与封贡体制下相比,有了很大的改观,而且在客观效果上,却有利于中国的民生及商务的发展。同时,对变通失败的原因进行了分析,指出失败原因是多方面的,如国家实力、保守势力的阻挠等,但从决策的角度看,体制变通失败的原因则在于清政府对朝鲜外交决策的短视。尽管在一些具体事件上,清政府采取了一些及时和适宜的决策,但他们却始终不敢触及清朝在朝鲜问题上的核心:两国之间的封贡关系。不仅是不敢触动,而且是尽力维护,从而最终导致了体制变通的失败。更多还原

【Abstract】 In the later half of the 19th century, with collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the continuous invasion of the western powerful countries, the tributary system centered around the Qing government was also collapsing. However, rulers of the Qing Dynasty tried their best to continue the situation. It was under this circumstance that the main contents of this thesis happened.As the most important vassal nation in the tributary system of the Qing Dynasty, Korea was of the vital importance to the existence of the tributary system and the security of northeast China. However, the invasion of France, America, UK and Japanese to Korea aroused unease in Korea, which accordingly exerted negative influence on the Qing Dynasty as well as stability of the tributary system.From 1870s, the Qing government changed its traditional ruling policy that exerted no interference on the policies and domestic administration of the tributary nations and started the new diplomatic policies to Korea, which lasted to the early 1900s. During the time, the diplomatic policies of the Qing Dynasty to Korea deviated the traditional way. Therefore, this thesis mainly launches reviews on the diplomatic mechanism of the Qing Dynasty to Korea from the 1860s to the mid-1880s.As far as the evolution of diplomatic mechanism of the Qing Dynasty to Korea is concerned, this thesis covers the following contents:Since 1860s, the central government diplomatic system concerning Korea that had been centered around the Ministry of Rites has gradually been replaced by the Peiyang Minister, Tsungli Yamen and Envoy Sent to Japan. The Peiyang Minister, among others, played a decisive role. As a result, from Ma Jiazhong dispatched to Korea as an envoy to Cheng Shutang dispatched to Korea as a Commercial Agent, the envoy-dispatching system dominated by envoy was gradually replaced by the new envoy-dispatching system featuring in modern characteristics.The evolution made a display of the modernization of China’s diplomatic policies. However, since this kind of modernization only aimed to maintain the outdated tributary system, it could not escape from the failure destination. From the viewpoints of mechanism and system, this thesis attempts to make a review of the changes and modern significance brought about by the evolution for the diplomacy between the Qing Dynasty and Korea, and find the reasons of the failure.Centering around the evolution of diplomatic mechanism of the Qing Dynasty to Korea from the 1860s to 1885, this thesis launches the review in five chapters.Introduction makes research on the academic significance and research methods of the diplomatic mechanism to Korea at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Through reviewing the achievements secured by the Chinese and foreign academic circles on the studies of political relation between the Qing Dynasty and Korea and the diplomatic system of the later Qing Dynasty, this thesis points out that the previous studies on the relation between the Qing Dynasty and Korea many started with the European and Japanese invasion on Korea. There is no study from the viewpoint of the Qing Dynasty. The studies of the diplomatic system of the later Qing Dynasty were mainly concentrated on the transformation from traditional to modern. So this thesis makes a combined study of the Sino-foreign relationship history and the diplomatic system history, thus making a deep study on the evolution of diplomatic mechanism of the later Qing Dynasty.Chapter I mainly introduces the establishment and mechanism of tributary system in the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and Korea. Section 1 mainly introduces the establishment and stability of the tributary system. Section 2 introduces the institutional establishments concerning the Korean affairs within the tributary system of the Qing Dynasty, which is comprised of three parts: the central government institution centering around the Rites Ministry, the envoy dispatched to Korea, and the Northeast institutions comprised of the Fengtian and Jilin local administrative system. Section 3 makes a summary of this chapter, which points out several characteristics in the tributary system of the Qing Dynasty and Korea.Chapter II mainly reviews the issues concerning the Qing Dynasty persuading Korea to open up and reform the outdated mechanism. Section 1 introduces the promotion of decision-making position of Tsungli Yamen, Peiyang Ministry and Envoy Sent to Japan in the affairs concerning the Korea affairs, which led to the position retreat of the Rites in the diplomatic issues concerning Korea, thus forming the pattern that Tsungli Yamen and Peiyang Minister dominated the Korean affairs. Section 2 makes a detailed study on the multiple procedures and course of the Qing Dynasty persuading Korea to open up to the outside world. The Qing Government, accordingly, reformed the tributary mechanism. Section 3 makes a summary of this chapter, which points out the formation of the dominant position of Tsungli Yamen and Peiyang Minister in the Korean affairs was a result of the evolution of the outdated mechanism. Meanwhile, it promoted the further evolution of the traditional mechanism of the Qing Dynasty.Chapter III introduces the dispatching of special envoys and the formation of special envoy system as well the influence exerted on Korea’s opening-up by the special envoys. Section 1 reviewed Ma Jianzhong’s visits to Korea in May and June 1882 twice to sign the signing of commercial cities between Korea and America, Korea and UK, and Korea and Germany. Section 2 reviewed Ma Jianzhong’s urgent visit to Korea in August 1882 after the Korean Civil Strife. During the time when he stayed in Korea, Ma Jianzhong launched conciliated Taewon-gun, the Enlightenment Group and the Japan, which finally facilitated the Qing Government to make a decision to arrest Taewon-gun to crack down on the Korean Civil Strife. Section 3 makes a review on Li Hongzhang dispatching Ma Jianchang to station in Korea to the Korean Government to handle the commercial affairs. However, due to influence of the tributary mechanism, Ma Jianchang’s function in Korea was restrained. Finally, he had to come back to China . Section 4 makes a summary, which points out that Ma Jianzhong and Ma Jianchang, as the special envoys dispatched to Korea, played the transitional and temporary roles. On one hand, they made some breakthrough in the traditional mechanism, on the other hand, they were restrained by the traditional mechanism.Chapter IV makes a review on the dispatching of commercial agent to Korea and the establishment of the system concerning commercial agent in Korea. Section 1 introduce the signing of "Regulations of Commercial and Civil Trade through Maine and Land Ways between China and Korea," which is the background and foundation for dispatching the commercial agent to Korea. Section 2 introduces the creative work the commercial agent did after arriving in Korea, for instance, building official mansion, pioneering concession, negotiating commercial affairs, protecting Chinese merchants and making diplomatic negotiations with the Korean Government on behalf of the Qing Government. Section 3 introduces the establishment of systems to dispatch commercial agent to Korea. These systems include port agent system, diplomatic note system, and trial system. Section 4 reviews the identification confusion of commercial agent in Korea caused by conflict between the new and outdated mechanism. Finally, Chen Shutang retreated to China. Section 5 is the summary of this chapter, which points out that the establishment of commercial agent system started to convert part ideas and policies concerning the relation of the Qing Dynasty and Korea under the tributary relationship. The modern factors in the change had milestone significance in the evolution of Korea’s diplomatic mechanism.Chapter V is the conclusion of the thesis. From the overall viewpoint, this Chapter makes historic review on the evolution of the diplomatic mechanism of the Qing Dynasty to Korea. By means of sifting through the evolution of diplomatic mechanism to Korea at the end of the Qing Dynasty, analyzing the failure reasons of the diplomatic mechanisms of the Qing Dynasty from the view-point of diplomatic decision-making, and reviewing the modern significance of the evolution of diplomatic mechanism at the end of the Qing Dynasty, this Chapter makes retrospect, comparison and analysis on the theme of the thesis and makes far-reaching exploration.更多还原