【作者】 陈晨捷；

【导师】 曾振宇；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 专门史， 2009， 博士

【摘要】 第一章论述了汉初儒学的兴起及其教化举措。汉初社会大体上呈现一种尚武轻狂、重利的面貌,时人迫切希望能将社会纳入礼制的规范。然而叔孙通所定的汉仪遵循的却是秦制的尊君卑臣之法,即便如此还不尽完备,而仅限于朝仪,对社会生活的其他方面缺少规范。加上黄老无为思想已不能适应社会需要,从而为儒学的兴起提供了良好的条件。在儒家思想成为意识形态之后,西汉政府为了推行儒家教化,建立了太学与郡学以培养儒家生徒与儒家官员,在官员的选拔上以“举孝廉”来导民以孝,同时根据乡里社会的特点设立三老来昭示、推广孝道。在此过程中尽管其政治抗争性逐渐消失,但儒家还是通过各种渠道实践其教化主张。需要注意的是由于儒家行“条教”有可能导致的名声太大,这种教化行为受到了专制皇权的极大限制。第二章论述了“孝”观念的变化及其在西汉社会的影响。西周时期“孝”的使用范围很广,孔子则首先将“孝”局限在用于对父母、祖先的关系上。在赡养父母的基础上,孔子、曾子强调的是“敬亲”的内在情感。当父母有过时,孔子认为子女应父义则从,父不义则谏;曾子则在此基础上提炼出以义辅亲、“以正致谏”、“微谏不倦”等原则。孟子的孝论则与孔、曾不同,他极力维护家庭关系,提出“父子之间不责善”的主张,强调子女对父母应无条件地服从。其后《孝经》和董仲舒的“三纲说”则着力对“孝”的正当性进行哲学论证,从而为汉代“以孝治国”提供理论指导。总体上看西汉孝论呈以下几个特点:一,“以孝治国”理论对“孝”的政治化考虑使得西汉孝论更注重的是社会政治伦理而非家庭伦理;二,先秦儒家对人格平等的注重以及以义辅亲、“以正致谏”等原则已逐渐萎缩,代之而起的是子女对父母尊长无条件的服从;三,提倡孝道使得三年丧制渐至流行,同时又厚葬成风,而与此同时哀戚之情却日益淡薄。此外,孝道的盛行又间接纵容了儒家复仇风气的形成和发展,从而导致了伦理诉求与法律诉求的内在矛盾。第三章论述了“忠”观念的变化及其对西汉时期君臣伦理的作用。“忠”的原义也极宽泛,孔孟儒家所谓的“忠”是指个人内在道德的发挥和与他人之间的关系,而非专指君臣伦理。即便在君臣关系上,孔孟也强调二者之间的对等关系。然而从荀子起,臣道开始降低,君主的地位渐至隆崇。西汉时此一趋势越来越明显,如董仲舒便认为“君为臣纲”并将其置于三纲之首,从而奠定了君尊臣卑的基本关系模式并使君权笼罩一切。同时为落实“普天之下莫非王臣”的理念,时人一方面将家庭伦理的孝移用作政治伦理以巩固君权,另一方面又极力论证忠孝同质,将君臣关系比拟于父子关系以协调公家与私家之间的矛盾,但是从根本上说“忠”与“孝”的理论矛盾是不可调和的。同时从“忠”、“孝”观念来看,西汉时期提倡“孝”道的根本目的在于移孝作忠,“忠”才是意识形态的最高目标。因而当家庭伦理与政治伦理即“孝”与“忠”发生矛盾时,统治者最终维护的是政治伦理,表明了当时国家意识的增强。第四章论述了“义利之辨”与西汉社会的重利之风。在先秦儒家的思想体系中,“义”不仅指外在行为规范也是内在的德性之一,但秦汉时期“义”主要指外在规范,甚至由于受到现实利益的冲击,人们对这种外在规范也不予重视。从儒家“义利之辨”来看,不管是孔子的“见利思义”还是孟子的“重义轻利”,先秦儒家在义利关系上均旗帜鲜明。西汉初期的儒生亦极力宣扬“重义轻利”之主张,但在汉初统治者放任自由的政策下,崇势重利的风气开始衍生。随着儒家思想的传播,理论上西汉中后期“重义轻利”的思想为社会所普遍接受,然而通过对当时社会现实的考察便可发现,西汉社会的重利之风仍极浓重。当时不仅崇尚利势,而且生活奢侈,又厚葬成风,嫁娶无度。在现实利益面前,儒家宣扬的“重义轻利”思想显得异常苍白。第五章论述了敬老、尊师与崇让之风。首先说敬老。乡里社会崇尚年齿,敬老有助于维系地方秩序和培育孝道,因而西汉政府通过赐予老者财物、王杖和给予赋役与法律上的部分特权以推动社会形成敬老之风。其次说尊师。先秦社会一直有“道”高于“势”的看法,秦汉统一政局的形成却使得“道”屈于“势”。不过在儒家文化的传承系统中,“师”的作用必不可少;通过为帝王师,儒家思想直接影响于君主。第三为崇让之风。“让”是儒家崇尚的美德之一。然而汉初社会亲情淡薄、兄弟无亲,不仅使社会风气恶化也使得帝王家为争夺帝位骨肉相残,为此西汉政府着力提倡“让”德并为社会所广泛接受。然而西汉后期崇让风气的蔓延与普及则为王莽的篡汉提供了思想基础。第六章论述了“夫为妻纲”与西汉时期的两性关系。先秦妇女的婚恋较为自由,贞节观念也较为淡薄,然而时代愈是晚近,男尊女卑的趋势也愈是明显。不过在西汉时期男女关系仍相当宽松。即使如董仲舒,从哲学高度论证了“夫为妻纲”,确立男尊女卑的基调,但亦无“从一而终”之要求。刘向的《列女传》及班昭的《女诫》尽管要求“从一而终”但对时人影响不大。相反,“夫妇义合”的观念使西汉女子享有极大的自主权,当时再嫁和改嫁颇为普遍。从总体上看,西汉时期男尊女卑和夫尊妻卑仍占主导地位,但妇女的社会地位和家庭地位仍比以后的一些朝代要高。第七章考察儒家思想对西汉社会的影响。第一,随着国家意识增强,秦汉的官僚政治必然通过种种手段加强对社会的控制,努力构建一个编户齐民的社会基础,官僚政治自身的特点决定了它势必将一切都纳入统制的范围并使得各种社会势力相对齐平。然而一种趋势的形成,必然产生一种相反的社会取向与之对抗。这种对抗的结果就是西汉时人的人生观发生改变,即一面自我压抑一面寻求个人自由的境地。第二为实用主义与崇古思潮的激荡。中国古代哲学的演进趋势是逐渐朝着理性主义、实用主义方向发展,在此趋势下,为了能够得到统治者的重视和采纳,儒家思想及时地进行了自我改造,儒生也积极地适应理性行政的时代需求,反过来它又刺激了通经致用的实用主义取向。然而儒家主张本依往古立论,汉儒批评时政又常引古以立说,因而汉代的崇古思潮亦极浓重。崇古之风至西汉后期积重难返,王莽新朝的建立即标志着儒家理想主义的顶峰。尽管西汉因之灭亡,但此二股思潮的激荡又为东汉新的秩序的形成奠定了社会基础。更多还原

【Abstract】 Chapter one deals with the rise and it’s civilizing measures of Confucianism in the Early Han Dynasty.During that time,the society as a whole showed on an extremely frivolous visage of putting much value on warrior and great profit,so people were eager to incorporate the society into the set of etiquette.However the etiquette shaped by Shusun Tong was according to the system of Qin’s superior emperors and inferior ministers,and it was limited to the etiquette in the court,and did not contain the criteria for social life,so it was not complete.At the same time,the ideas of inactivity of Huang Di and Lao Zi were no longer adapt to the development of the society.Together they provide favorable conditions for the rise of Confucianism.Then as an ideology,the government tried to carry out the Confucian moralization by the measures:upbuilding Taixue and Junxue to cultivate confucianists and Confucian officials;by choosing "Xiaolian" to show people with "filial piety";set Sanlao to advocate "filial piety" according to the characteristic of rural society. Although it’s political resistence was reduced,the Confucian tried to carry out their moralizing idea.But we should notice that Confucian moralizing behaviors were enormously suspected because they may got popularity by practising "Tiaojiao".The second chapter refers to the transformation of "filial piety" and it’s influence in pre-Han dynasty.In Western Zhou Dynasty,filial piety was widely used,and it was Confucius who firstly limited filial piety to describe the relations of parents and ancestors.At the basis of supporting parents,Confucius and Zeng stressed the inner feeling of respecting parents.When parents made mistakes,Confucius believed that children should obey their parents when parents were righteous,and expostulate when parents were not righteous.Based on this,Zeng abstracted such principles as assisting parents with righteousness,exhorting between father and children,expostulating tirelessly in tactful words and so on.The filial piety of Mencius was different from that of Confucius and Zengzi.He spared no effort to safeguard family relationships, asserting "nonexhortation between father and children" and emphasized that children should obey parents unconditionally.From that time forward,the classic of Filiality focused on the philosophical argument of the legitimacy of filial piety in the three cardinal guides of DongZhongshu,in this way,it provided a theoretical guide for the rule of filial piety.Filial piety in the Western Han Dynasty as a whole had the following characteristic:Firstly,the theory of filial piety in the Western Han Dynasty focused more on social and political ethics rather than family ethics because of the political considerations of filial piety in the rule of filial piety.Secondly,the principles of equal personality,assisting parents with righteousness and exhorting between father and children in Pre-Qin Confucian were gradually shrinking,while termless obeisance to parents and elders were rising.Thirdly,the promotion of filial piety made the three-year mourning and ceremonious exequies popular,while at the same time sorrow feelings were decreasing.In addition,the prevalence of filial piety indirectly encouraged the formation and development of revenge Confucian cultures,resulting in the inherent contradictions in the ethical and legal appeals.The third chapter talks about the transformation of the ideas of loyalty and it’s influence on Junchen Ruler and Minister.The original meaning of loyalty was also extensive.When Confucius and Mencius talked about loyalty,it referred to exerting the inherent morality of individuals and the relationship with others,not specifically to the ethic of rulers and ministers.Even when discussing the relationship between rulers and ministers,they also insisted on the equal relationship.However,since the time of Xunzi,the conditions of the ministers were lowering while rulers were rising. This trend was more and more obvious in the western Dynasty.For example, DongZhongshu believed in that rulers guided subjects and placed it in the first place in the three cardinal guides.By doing that,the pattern of superior sovereign and inferior subject was founded and the regality hanged over the world.Meanwhile,to carry out the philosophy of all the people on God’s earth were the subjects of the king, on the one hand,people shifted filial piety in family ethics to political ethics,on the other hand,they tried their best to argue that loyalty and filial piety was homogeneous, and compare the relationship between rulers and ministers to filiation to ease up the conflict between the public and family,but it won’t be harmonized radically.Seeing from the concept of "filial piety" and "loyalty",we can find that why the government try to advocate "filial piety" is to sparlplug "loyalty" actually.So when family ethics encounter the political ethics,the government will defend the political ethics finally,it indicates the strengthen of state idea.The fourth chapter refers to differentiating righteousness from profit.In the C Confucian theory "Yi" means not only the explicit behavioral norms but also the one of the inner dharmas in pre-Qin dynasty.But it mainly refers to explicit behavioral in Qin and Han dynasty.Even that,it was not observed because people payed more attention to the realistic benefit.From the concept "differentiating righteousness from profit" we can see clearly the standpoint of Confucian in early Qin dynasty,when the relation of righteousness and profit were talked about.For example,Confucius called for that we should not forget moral principles at the sight of profits,and Mencius claimed that righteousness should be emphasized while profit be looked down upon which was also believed by the Confucian in early Western Han Dynasty.Under the laissez-faire atmosphere of that time,esteeming power and valuing profit began to derive.However with the prevalence of Confucianism,the thought that righteousness should be emphasized while profit be looked down upon wad widely accepted in the late Western Han Dynasty.By reviewing the reality of society,we can find that,in fact, during the Western Han Dynasty,valuing profit had not been changed at all.At that time,people in the whole society advocated profit and power,lived on the fat of the land,buried generously and espoused extravagantly.In the face of benefits,the thought of valuing righteousness and despising profit advocated by the Confucian was extremely powerless.The fifth chapter discusses on respect for the older,honor of teachers and esteem of courtliness.Respect for the older was firstly discussed here.In local communities, the old men were respected,for it helped to maintain the local orders and cultivate filial piety,hence the government of Western Han prompted the society to form the tradition of respecting the old by vouchsafing property,walking stick symbolizing honor and some privileges on tax and law.Honor of teachers were placed in the second place.In the society of Pre-Qin there had been attitude that doctrines were superior to power,while the unifying of Qin Dynasty and Han Dynasty made an opposite results.However,teachers played a necessary role in the transmission of Confucian culture.By working as teachers of emperors,Confucianism directly influenced them.Thirdly was esteeming courtliness.Courtliness was one of the virtues of Confucian.But in the early Han Dynasty,affections and brothers became indifferent,which resulted in depravation of the social ethos and slaughter of monarch’s kindred for imperial power.In order to change this situation,the government of Western Han Dynasty exerted all its powers to call for courtliness, which were widely accepted later.But in the late Western Han Dynasty,the spread and popularization of courtliness provided thought foundation for the usurpation of Wang Mang.Husband guiding wife is concerned about in the sixth chapter.The love and marry of females Pre-Qin were relatively free and they did not pay much attention to chasteness.But the more recent time,the trend of superior men and inferior women was more apparent.However,the relationship of men and women was quite loose in the Western Han Dynasty.Even though Dong Zhong-shu had demonstrated that "Husband guides wife" on philosophy,and established the tone of superior men and inferior women,he hadn’t demanded that the woman marry only one man in her life. Liu Xiang’s Lien(u|¨)zhuan and BanZhao’s N(u|¨)Jie had that demand but did not influence much on people.In contrast,the concept of "the husband and wife were combined with Yi" gave females in the Western Han Dynasty great autonomy in deuterogamy and remarry.As a whole,the conditions of women in society and families were higher in Western Han Dynasty than any other subsequent dynasties,though the opinion of superior men and inferior women was still dominant.Chapter seven is about the impact of Confucianism on western Han.First,along with the strengthening of Nation consciousness,bureaucratic politics of Qin and Han had to strengthen the control of society by variety of measures.They tried to conduct a concordant social foundation with great efforts.The characteristics of bureaucratic politics determined that it would bring everything into governing and make all kinds of society force equivalent.But once a kind of trend was formed,a kind of opposite social trend will also be formed to fight against it.The result of fight was that the philosophy of people in western Han changed,namely,on one hand,they impressed themselves;on the other hand they sought freedom of themselves.The Second is about the agitation of pragmatism and the thoughts of esteeming ancient society.The ancient Chinese philosophy evolved towards rationalistic and pragmatism,under this trend,in order to get the attention and the adoption of the rulers,Confucianism duly carded out a self-transformation and Confucianists also tried to adapt to the need of rationalistic government,in turn,it stimulated the tropism of pragmatism of being well versed in Confucian classics and using.However the thoughts of esteeming ancient society were still very strong in Han Dynasty because Confucianism claimed that we should make a point based on the ancient times,and Confucianists of Han Dynasty cited the ancient thought to criticize current politics.In the late Han Dynasty, the thoughts of esteeming ancient society cumulated to its most,and Confucian idealism got to the pinnacle in the New Dynasty under Wang Mang.Even this result in the demise of Western Han Dynasty,the battle of these two thoughts laid the social foundation of the new orders in Eastern Han Dynasty.更多还原