【作者】 李学娟；

【导师】 马新；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中国古代史， 2009， 博士

【摘要】 教化实质上是一种辅政措施。教化实施的过程,就是统治者本着相应的教化标准,一方面利用刑罚制度、察举制度、监察制度等强制手段打击反动势力、革除恶俗陋习,另一方面利用道德、礼仪等温和的手段规范人们的行为、培养“良风美俗”的过程。“教化”问题是近二十年来学界研究的一个热点问题。而中国历史上全国范围内的真正意义上的“教化”开始于汉代,自两汉时期起,教化就渗透于国家管理的各个层面,通过“上行下效”影响到社会各个阶层。因此,研究两汉时期的教化的兴起、发展及在实践中与各项社会政策之间的关系,在历史现象中寻求教化的本质,对于研究汉代社会乃至整个古代社会具有比较重要的学术意义。本文在尽可能吸收前人研究成果的基础上,将汉代教化与汉政府的各项制度结合起来,作一系统、动态的考察,以期更全面的了解教化在国家管理中所起的作用,把握教化实践与其它制度之间的互动关系。本文从以下七章展开论述:第一章,“教化的发展阶段”,分析教化的发展阶段。汉代“教化”概念最先由儒者提出,儒家道德和礼仪标准又是统治者施教最常用的华服,因此儒学的发展与教化的发展密不可分,儒学在汉代的发展历程,恰恰可以反映教化的发展历程。我们拟从西汉前期、西汉中后期至东汉立国前、东汉时期三个时期划分教化的发展阶段。第二章,“教化与汉代经济政策”,分析教化与汉代经济政策之间的关系。“国实民富”是实施教化的前提,又是教化的最初目的之一。汉代经济政策中的劝课农桑、优复特殊群体政策都属于教化的范畴。劝农政策中树立的教化典型“力田”的性质是学界争论的一个焦点,我们作为重点进行论述;享受优复的社会群体设定在基层社会,包括乡里教化之师三老,老人、妇女等弱势群体,以及为发展儒家教育而选拔的博士弟子。特权阶层不在我们的讨论范围之内。第三章,“教化与汉代文教政策”,分析教化与汉代文教政策的关系。作为教化理论来源的汉代儒学是综合先秦各家学说之长的新儒学,儒学“独尊”局面的形成促进了汉代教化理论的发展,儒吏作为施教的主体历来是学界论述的重点,汉代儒学发展与教化之间存在密不可分的关系,因此儒学教化从各学派教化理论中脱颖而出是社会发展的必然。汉代儒学的迅猛发展应归功于教育,包括官学教育与私学教育。“教”的意义包含教育,教育是取得“更化”的主要方式。儒学教育的繁荣促进了汉代教化网络的形成。在这个教化网络中,三老扮演着重要的角色。第四章,“教化与察举制度的关系”,分析教化与察举制度的关系。选官制度作为一种激励政策,与教化有相通之处。而且,察举科目中的孝、弟、力田等都属于基层社会的教化典型。因儒家教化的影响,察举制度中渗透了许多教化标准;符合教化标准的察举科目选拔的官吏,往往比较重视地方教化。不过教化毕竟是一种辅政措施,如果察举不实,就会打破二者相互促进的良性循环,转入形式主义。第五章,“教化与汉代监察制度”,分析教化与监察制度的关系。维护清明的吏治和世风是监察官的重要职能,这也是教化的目的之一。汉代具有监察职能的循行使者、郡国守相、县级长吏乃至乡官里吏,往往具有多种职能。监察制度的演变影响了教化的发展;教化对监察制度的影响既有正面的,也有负面的。第六章,“教化与汉代刑罚制度”,分析教化与刑罚制度的关系。汉代教化与法律、刑罚制度的关系是学术界讨论的热点话题,但论者往往着眼于教化与刑罚制度的互动,忽视了二者的地位在两汉的发展演变。“狱讼止息”是汉代教化的理想境界,但是“厌讼”习俗容易粉饰太平,掩盖实际矛盾,导致矛盾激化,使刑罚制度失效。轻视刑罚制度而偏重儒家教化,使得执法官吏在判案过程中,既有可能表现出人性化的一面,又有可能“循礼”而不“守法”,导致复仇之风盛行。第七章,“教化与汉代社会风俗”,分析教化与风俗演变的关系。儒家教化与地方风俗的关系正是雅文化与俗文化的关系,二者之间是相互影响,相互渗透的。促进世风更化是教化的终极目的,“教”化儒者心目中的民间“恶俗”为“良风美俗”,促进“六合同风”;固有的风俗使施教者也不能“免俗”,走向教化的反面。教化对民间的奢侈之风、淫祀之风都有显著的禁绝作用,汉代民间歌谣反映了民众对教化效果的评价。更多还原

【Abstract】 In Archaic Chinese, "Jiaohua" had the meanings of cultivation, reclamation, education, civilization, moralization, and humanization. During Han Dynasty, "Jiaohua" was "Jiao" and "Hua", what could be translated into English just about "educate" and "learn virtue". In Han Dynasty, "Jiaohua" was the measures or actions taken by the rulers with propose of civilization, moralization, and so on. "Jiaohua" has been a hot topic in academic circles in recent 20 years. And, just in Han Dynasty, "Jiaohua" came into effect truly in the whole country. From then on, it pervaded virtually every aspect of the affairs of the nation. Following the example set by their superiors, people in various sections of society took part in "Jiaohua". So it is important to study the Rise of "Jiaohua", the development of "Jiaohua", and the relations between "Jiaohua" and the national policies in Han Dynasty. We should see through the appearances to perceive the essence. And it has great academically significance about the history of Han dynasty, even about the Whole Social History.According to documentary records about Han Dynasty and fruition of contemporary education research, it could be seen that "Jiaohua" extended into each part of society and influenced each social stratum. We should combined "Jiaohua" with the rules set up by government so as to further elaborate the role they play in country management affairs. The dissertation consisted of seven chapters:The first chapter is "The Development of ’Jiaohua’". The concept of "Jiaohua" in Han dynasty was first put forward by Confucians. Confucian moral thought and etiquette standards were often used to cultivate the people. The development course of Confucianism just reflected that of "Jiaohua". The development of "Jiaohua" in Han Dynasty can be divided into three stages: the early western Han Dynasty; the middle and late western Han Dynasty, eastern Han Dynasty.The second chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and Economic Policy in Han Dynasty". The prosperity of the nation and the affluence of the people is a prerequisite for the implementation of "Jiaohua" and also one of the original purposes. We will focus on the typical representative "Litian" established in the agricultural policy. The social group enjoying particular treatment distributed at the grass-roots community which included "Sanlao" who was responsible for "Jiaohua", elderly person, women and doctor students selected in order to develop Confucian education. The privileged class is not in the scope of discussion.The third chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and Cultural and Educational Policies in Han Dynasty". Confucianism in Han Dynasty that had gathered the advantages of other thinkers in Pre-Qin Dynasty was the theory source of "Jiaohua". The predominance of Confucianism promoted the theory development of "Jiaohua" .Because of the intimate relation between Confucianism and "Jiaohua"; it was inevitable Confucian civilization were separated from kinds of theories. The rapid development of Confucianism was attributable to education which included official education and private education. The prosperity of Confucian education ultimately led to the formation of "Jiaohua" network. In Han Dynasty "Sanlao" played an important role.The fourth chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and Recmmending System in Han Dynasty". As an incentive mechanism, the official election system is similar to "Jiaohua". Moreover, "Xiao", "Ti", "Litian" and other subjects in the co-optation system are all typical case in grass-roots community. Due to the impact of Confucian, co-optation system contains many "Jiaohua" standards. Officials who conform to them always attend to local "Jiaohua". But "Jiaohua" is after all an assistant measure, if there is pretence in the co-optation system, it will break the virtuous circle into formalism.The fifth chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and Supervisory System in Han Dynasty". It is an important function for an ombudsman to maintain good official management, which is also one of the purposes of "Jiaohua". The people who were sent to inspect the national and all levels of the local executives often had multiple functions. "Jiaohua" and supervision policy interacted upon each other.The sixth chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and the Penal System in Han Dynasty". The relationship between "Jiaohua" and law and punishment is a hot issue in academic circles, but scholars often focus on the interaction about "Jiaohua" and penalty so as to ignore the status and evolution of both in Han Dynasty. "Having no lawsuit" is the ideal state of "Jiaohua", but the customs of "Tired of lawsuit" easily become a false picture of peace and cover up the actual conflicts, which will make the penalty failure. The impact of "Jiaohua" on punishment manifests in "the trial according to Chun Qiu" and "invoking Confucian classics to law" .Confucian "Jiaohua" not only made the law enforcement officials showing humanism side in the process of deciding a case, but also "following ceremony" instead of "abiding by the law", which will lead to the prevalence of revenge practices.The seventh chapter is "The Relationship between ’Jiaohua’ and The Social Customs in Han Dynasty". The relationship of Confucian civilization and local customs is similar to that of genteel culture and popular culture. It is the ultimate purpose of "Jiaohua" to change bad customs into good customs, but influenced by the original customs, the people operating "Jiaohua" often go to the opposite way of "Jiaohua". "Jiaohua" has the significant effect in banning private luxury and sacrifice not in the appropriate time.更多还原