【作者】 顾月琴；

【导师】 丁钢；

【作者基本信息】 华东师范大学 ， 教育史， 2009， 博士

【摘要】 士农工商,四民分业思想古已有之,在奴隶社会和封建社会早期,教育一般是贵族的特权,汉代儒学取得独尊地位,奠定了中国两千多年的教育与文化底蕴。隋唐科举制度实行后,学优则仕便成为普遍法则,四书五经等儒家经典更成为士子读书进仕的法定教科书。他们希冀通过科举考试而跻身封建社会的主流阶层,因此往往追求儒家“修身、齐家、治国、平天下”的精英文化,重人文政务而轻自然科学及技能技艺的学习,导致中国古代农工商等实科教育不发达。明清时期随着商品经济发展,辟土殖谷的农民,作巧成器的百工,通财鬻货的商人,为应对写信记账等生活需求,也有了读书识字的愿望与可能。而科举竞争的激烈,产生了大量的落第文人,这些受过精英教育的落榜者由雅入俗,与市井中人同流,冲破儒家思想约束,编写了大量的杂字教材。这类杂字是我国古代流传在民间与“三百千”并行的识字教材,一般句式短小,语言通俗浅显,内容简单实用。与儒家经典注重修齐治平鄙视工商的思想不同,杂字较少引证古代圣贤言论,除介绍人情世故及自然科学外,还大胆传授农业生产知识、商业经验、百工技艺等实科内容,将识字教育、知识教育及职业教育融为一体,是普通百姓生活中的百科全书,促进了中国古代民间教育的发展。因此,从某种意义上可以认为,杂字成书从体例到内容都是对汉代以来“经学”传统的背叛,元代政府甚至明令限制乡塾使用“杂字”教学,似可作为历代统治者对其抱有偏见的旁证。但由于杂字顺应时代发展趋势,迎合百姓“积财千万,不如薄技在身”的观念,因此明清时期杂字种类增多,内容也日益丰富,它的读者不限年龄,不拘身份,成为当时中下层百姓接受教育的主要途径。事实上,发展到明清时期,杂字已逐渐突破识字教材的功能,成为对底层百姓进行知识教育及职业教育的实用教材。由此,儒家精英教育与杂字大众教育相结合,满足了不同阶层的文化需求,中国教育出现了事实上的“双轨制”,使中国传统文化以无所不在的力量渗透于社会各个角落,促进了中国古代文化的繁荣及教育的普及。杂字非但在中原地区广泛流传,而且还被少数民族学习采纳,出现了少数民族杂字。杂字甚至还跨洋越海,远播台湾、日本等地,对这些地区的教育与文化做出了贡献。因此作为中国民间俗文化的一部分,杂字在中国教育史及文化史上应占有一席之地,其功不可没!本论文从大量原始资料入手,追溯杂字从古至今的历史轨迹,力求透析商品经济发展下,明清杂字盛行原因及其特点,并寻求杂字与社会变迁的内在张力,以期为当今中国的教材改革、扫盲教育及农村教育提供借鉴作用。全文包括正文和结语部分,正文部分共分五章:第一章:分别论述本论文的研究缘起、研究综述、研究方法及论文基本框架等内容。第二章:主要追溯了杂字的历史轨迹。杂字作为书名起源较早,远在汉魏时代已有所见,《隋书·经籍志》就著录多种杂字,但这批早期杂字多已亡佚。宋以后识字课本丰富多样,杂字也成为当时百姓子弟农闲时接受教育的常用教材。明清时期杂字获得长足发展,其种类渐趋繁多,内容也日益丰富。民国期间新学兴起但依然有百姓使用杂字教学,建国初期及改革开放后,为配合扫盲教育全国各地也编写了多种杂字教材。第三章:讨论明清时期杂字在民间盛行的原因。明清时期随着商品经济的繁荣,城乡生活的变迁,人们日常经济生活需要一定的读写能力。价值观念的转变,科举竞争的加剧,“弃儒经商”成为社会发展的趋势,而市民阶层的壮大,激发了市民阶层主体本身对精神生活的向往,他们对通俗娱乐的需求,包括对读物的需求日渐明显。北宋以来印刷术的广泛应用,为杂字的刊行提供了技术条件。明清时期私塾教育极大发展,杂字也被大量用作补充教材。因此明清时期杂字种类渐趋增多,内容日益丰富,并在民间广为流传。第四章:系统分析杂字与其他蒙学教材相比的不同特点。传统蒙学教材注重灌输儒家伦理道德,尤其是两宋后受理学思想影响,许多蒙学教材更多抽象的道德说教。而杂字教法灵活,内容多为日常事物名称及农工商等实科知识,贴近百姓实际生活,多用方言口语,通俗易懂,有的还蕴含敦亲睦族、勤俭节约、惜时上进、反对迷信等思想教化,将识字教育、知识教育、职业教育与思想教育融为一体,具有浓厚的生活气息和实用价值,大大便利和丰富了百姓日常生活,促进了我国古代民间职业教育的发展。第五章:研究了杂字在国内外的流播情况,包括中原西北部边疆少数民族及台湾、日本等地的杂字,介绍了与杂字类似的明清商业书,分析了杂字与传统识字教材“三百千”的异同。民国期间新式学堂普遍建立但杂字依然为百姓所接受,建国初期及改革开放后,为配合农村扫盲教育,全国编写了各类杂字教材来提高农民的文化水平,这些都体现出杂字对后世教育的深远影响。该论文结语部分指出杂字与社会变迁密切相关,它不仅是民间识字课本,更是对底层百姓进行知识教育和职业教育的实用教材。杂字与儒家经典命运迥异,虽然没有受到封建统治者应有的重视,但对普及我国大众教育做出了巨大贡献,为民国时期包括建国后的农村教育、成人扫盲教育及基础教育课程改革等提供了一定的借鉴作用。更多还原

【Abstract】 The idea has existed in China since time immemorial that scholars, farmers, workers and merchants are differentiated from each other. In slavery society and early feudal society as well, mere the children of aristocracy could enjoy the privilege of education. However, Confucianism won the position to be solely esteemed in Han Dynasty, which laid the foundation for Chinese education and culture for more than two thousands of years. It has been a universal stereotype that accomplished scholars should go to officialism with the implementation of the imperial examination in Sui and Tang Dynasties. Four Books (the Great Learning, the Analects of Confucius, the Doctrine of the Mean, Mencius) and Five Classics(the Book of Changes, the Book of Songs, Collection of Ancient Texts, the Spring and Autumn Annals) became the well-recognized coursebooks necessary for all the examinees who anticipated that they would enter the upper class through the imperial examination. As the result of that, in ancient China, pragmatic education, such as the education of farming, industry and commerce, was not fully developed owing to the fact thatall the people tended to pursue Confucianism s elite culture ---- "healthytemperament, sound household, orderly country and harmonious world" . So, humanistic, political and official studies were highly emphasized, whereas the research of natural sciences and technological skills was much ignored. With the development of commercial economy in Ming and Qing Dynasties, land-tilling farmers, various smart craftsmen, and economical merchants also desired to enhance their literacy in order to meet their needs in life, such as, communication and bookkeeping. The competition of the imperial examination was so rigorous that many examinees failed. Thus, these examinees who went through formal schooling, resided and worked together with the lower class. Breaking through the stereotype of Confucianism thinking, they compiled myriads of tsa-tzu as textbooks of literacy. This kind of tsa-tzu was characterized with easy words, concise sentences and practical contents, like "Sanbaiqian" , a traditional textbook of literacy used in the non-government sphere. Unlike Confucian education textbooks, tsa-tzu scarcely applied the citations from ancient sages. What it addressed was public relations, natural sciences, agriculture, business, craftsmanship, literacy education, knowledge education, vocational education and so on. So it was seen as an encyclopaedia of common people. It facilitated the development of non-government education in ancient China.In some senses, thus, tsa-tzu is considered to have given up in terms of book style as well as book contents the tradition of Jingxue(the study of Confucian classics) which has appeared as early as Han Dynasty. In Yuan Dynasty, the Government ever made a mandate that tsa-tzu should be prohibited from being used even in private schools. This order was a typical evidence showing that governments in different dynasties had prejudice against tsa-tzu. However, owing to the fact that tsa-tzu kept abreast of the time and catered to the needs of common people’s life philosophy which stressed that skills are superior to wealth, tsa-tzu prospered in categories and contents in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Moreover, tsa-tzu became the pipeline of education of the common people regardless of ages and social status.As a matter of fact, tsa-tzu in Ming and Qing Dynasties was more than a literacy textbook, it turned out to be the pragmatic textbook for knowledge education and vocational education. The combination of Confucian elite education and tsa-tzu mass education met the various educational needs of people. This was the initial dual educational system in China, which enabled traditional Chinese culture to permeate all walks of life and promoted the development of ancient Chinese culture and the popularization of education.Tsa-tzu was spread and utilized not merely in Central China but also in the minority-resided areas, hence tsa-tzu of minority edition. And what s more, tsa-tzu was diffused even as far as Taiwan and Japan that both were benefited in education and cultural development. All in all, tsa-tzu contribution being unforgettable, tsa-tzu, an indispensable part of Chinese folk culture, occupied a unique position in the history of Chinese education and culture.On the basis of the first-hand materials regarding tsa-tzu, this dissertation is to review research of tsa-tzu from ancient time till now, to explore the reason of its prosperity and traits of tsa-tzu in Ming and Qing Dynasties, to identify the correlation between tsa-tzu and social economic development, and point out the implications for ongoing textbook reform, literacy education and rural education in current China. The paper consists of two sections—body and conclusion, the former is further composed of five chapters.Chapter one is to illustrate the reasons of the research, literature review, research methodology and the outline of this dissertation, respective.Chapter two is to explore the developmental history of tsa-tzu. tsa-tzu was used as book titles as early as Han and Wei Dynasties. In Sui Dynasty, various kinds of tsa-tzu were collected in "Jingjizhi"----an anthology of books in Sui dynasty. Unfortunately, most of the earliest editions of tsa-tzu were missing. Since Song Dynasty, there were diverse types of literacy textbooks one of which was tsa-tzu that was accepted and utilized as textbooks mainly by the offsprings of farmers when they were free from farming. In Ming and Qing Dynasties, tsa-tzu developed rapidly with more and richer contents. In Minguo Period, tsa-tzu was still spread in non-government stratum of society. In the period of Reform and Opening policy in China, tsa-tzu textbooks were compiled and put into use in order to comply with the literacy movement across the country.Chapter three is to shed a light on the causes of popularity of tsa-tzu in Ming and Qing Dynasties. With the development and prosperity of commercial economy in Ming and Qing Dynasties, common people felt it necessary to develop literacy competence in their daily economic life. It became a social tendency to abandon Confucianism for business due to the transformation of people’s values and serious competitiveness of the imperial examination. Besides, the increase of urban dwellers gave the impetus to the development spiritual life. And the demand for entertainment involving easy readers became growingly great. The popularity of printing technology provided for tsa-tzu an access to publication. With the development of private schools being on the wing in Ming and Qing Dynasties, tsa-tzu was used a lot as supplementary textbooks. As the result of that, tsa-tzu became more in numbers of types, richer in contents and more popular with people in Ming and Qing Dynasties,Chapter four is to analyze the characteristics of tsa-tzu by comparing with the other similar literacy textbooks for beginners. The traditional literacy textbooks for novices emphasized the education of Confucianism ethics and morals. And what’ s more, they were so much influenced by Neo- Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties that these textbooks were imbued with more abstract moral education. Whereas tsa-tzu was teemed with more things in daily life and practical knowledge in terms of agriculture, industry, commerce and so on, all of which were closely linked with common people s life. In addition, these textbooks were written in colloquial language or dialects which were easily understandable to common people. Furthermore, they had many other advantages: flexible methodology, healthy contents such as advocate of relative intimacy, thrifty life, time value, and anti-superstition. By and large the textbooks integrated literacy education, knowledge education, vocational education and moral education. Thanks to the strong flavor of daily life and practical value, the textbooks made common people s life more convenient and richer, and promoted the development of non-government vocational education in ancient China.Chapter five is to probe into the dissemination of tsa-tzu home and abroad. tsa-tzu has been spread in Central China, Northwest China, Taiwan and Japan. Also, this chapter is to introduce the commercial book pertaining to tsa-tzu in Ming and Qing Dynasties, to analyze the similarities and differences between tsa-tzu and "Sanbaiqian" . Although new schools came into being in Minguo period, tsa-tzu was still popular with ordinary people. In the early period after the foundation of the People s Republic of China in 1949 and even during the Reform and Openness period, many types of tsa-tzu were compiled across the country in order to enhance the literacy of people in the rural areas in China. These cases demonstrated the great significance of tsa-tzu in education of China.The conclusion is to point out that tsa-tzu is closely associated with the development of society . it is not only a nun-government literacy textbook but also a practical coursebook for knowledge education and vocational education to lower class than. Unlike the fate of Confucianism, tsa-tzu did not win the deserved attention from the feudal government. But, it made a huge contribution to the popularity of mass education in ancient China, and offered some implications for the rural education, adult literacy education and basic education reform undertaken in the era of Mingguo as well as the foundation of the People s Republic of China.更多还原