【作者】 李元鹏；

【导师】 苑书义；

【作者基本信息】 河北师范大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2009， 博士

【副题名】以1895-1898年初督抚的自强活动为中心

【摘要】 晚清是中国社会由传统向近代转型的过渡时期。面对“数千年未有之变局”、“数千年未有之强敌”,身处世亟时变、手握重权的督抚,成为了晚清社会向近代转型的一股不可或缺的重要力量。甲午战前,处于中西文化交汇之冲而勇于任事、具有改革意识的少数督抚从王朝统治的长远利益出发,积极擘划与推行洋务活动。甲午战后,在民族与王朝双重危机的交迫下,具有经世观念而急“图自强而弭祸患”的督抚日益增多。此时,督抚中,仍有少数顽固地抗拒洋务活动、标榜注重西学以迎合圣意者,但是,半数以上的督抚逐步摆脱了天朝上国的虚骄心理,突破了自囿自固的陈见积习,对西学的探求由“船坚炮利”进而“西艺”、“西学”,呈现出步步深入的态势。更为重要的是,倡言和支持洋务活动的督抚们通过其自强建言和实践,延续和深化了此前洋务运动的具体举措,推动了甲午战后清廷军事、经济、教育等诸多方面的改革。推行军事改革,是甲午战后清廷“强兵”的重要内容。督抚大吏已然认识到绿营“不足恃”,大多希望在保持派系军事实力、维持地方防汛及治安的基础上酌量裁减,“期于撙节饷需之中,仍不失保卫地方之意”。同时,在维持旧有军制的前提下,他们酌采西法训练军队、培养军事人才,并具体实践着洋务运动时期曾、左、李等少数洋务督抚提出的学习西方军事器物技艺,借以改善陆军装备、创办扩建近代军事工业和武备学堂的举措。而张之洞等少数具有近代军事改革理念的督抚,引入西方陆军制度、作战理论和军事文化观念,编练新式军队,发展近代军事教育,推动了晚清军事近代化的改革。修路开矿,是甲午战后清廷“富国”的重要手段。在筑路问题上,多数督抚对于铁路建设的紧迫性和必然性已有相当程度的认识,并深入地探讨了铁路建设的资金来源和拟筑路段等具体问题。张之洞、刘坤一还提议创设“铁路衙门”及“铁路大臣”,作为规划、制定和监督全国铁路建设的专司衙所。在采矿问题上,倡言洋务的督抚响应清廷采矿“阜财裕国”的设想,提出在借鉴西式采矿之机器、技术的基础上,改革旧有的矿业发展模式,设立矿务学堂培养矿务人才。由此,在清廷“恤商惠工”政策的号召下,半数以上的督抚接受了“富强相因”的理念,提倡和大力发展交通、工矿、贸易等实业,促进了晚清经济的发展。兴学育才是甲午战后清廷“富国”“强兵”的重要保证。督抚们或在旧有书院中添设西学实学的内容,试图通过规范和调整书院的教学内容以培养人才;或创设新式学堂,希冀通过西式的课程设置、分科设教和教法以改革旧有教育方式之不足。更为重要的是,张之洞、陈宝箴、胡聘之、廖寿丰及黄槐森等督抚规划和拟定了文武科举考试的场次、内容及形式,推动和深化了科举改革。由此,督抚们通过改书院、办学堂、变科举,推动了传统教育的近代转型。作为复杂的、不断变化中的政治人物,督抚对于改革的阻碍作用也是十分明显的。督抚中,守旧而反对西学者不乏其人,李秉衡、谭钟麟即是最为典型的代表人物。李、谭二人曾明确表示,自强“不必侈言变法”,不必向西方学习,只需以传统纲常名教为本,“正人心,培国脉”即可。这些公开反对向西方学习的督抚,怀抱儒术经常之规而直接抵制修路开矿、兴学堂改科举,桎梏了甲午战后清廷自强决策的制定和推行。另外一些督抚,本身并无太多洋务识见,因清廷和地方实力派倡导洋务声势颇壮,表面迎合而阳奉阴违,随波逐流而无所作为。督抚如福润、德寿、德馨者,囿于积习,拖延塞责,亦延缓了清廷各项自强措施的有效兑现。更为重要的是,当改革触及到督抚自身的政治权力和经济利益时,那些倡言洋务的封疆大吏们在利欲的趋动下,一方面做出效忠清廷、履行职守的表示,支持和推行改革,另一方面也借改革之机攫取更多的政治资本和经济利益,从而逐步扩张了各省自行其事的权限,增强了自身的独立性。但是,从整体上看,将洋务思想家“变法自强”的构想从理论变为实际、并积极推进清廷改革的极具开拓性的督抚,和通过对业以出现的洋务运动的观察和认识、自觉或不自觉地融入清廷改革的督抚,成为督抚群体的主流。甲午战后至百日维新前清廷的改革,是多种力量合力推动的结果,其中,督抚即是这诸多力量中的重要一支。督抚群体中,除了极少数坚持儒术经常之规而公开反对西法、西学的人而外,多半数的督抚不仅成为了清廷改革的建言者,而且还成为了改革的实践者,其对晚清的社会变革产生了深远的影响。更多还原

【Abstract】 The late Qing dynasty was a transitional period in which Chinese society was transformed from the traditional to the modern. Confronted with the social changes that had never happened and the enemies that had never been encountered in the past thousand years, the governors general and governors who lived in the time of great transformation and who had great political power became an important force to promote the modernization of the late Qing society.Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, in order to keep a long-termed control of the dynasty, a few far-sighted governors general and governors who lived in the convergence where the East met the West adopted the western learning greatly and advocated the westernization movement positively. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, when faced with increasingly serious national and dynastic crisis, more and more governors general and governors abandoned the psychology of emptiness and egotism, cleared off the deep-rooted mentality of self-confinement and explored the western culture ranging from the advanced warship and guns, physical science to the western learning progressively. More importantly, the governors general and governors who advocated the westernization movement continued and deepened the concrete measures adopted by Westernization Movement, thus positively promoting the modern transition of traditional military, economy, education through their reforming documents and practices.Military reform was an important policy adopted by Qing court after Sino-Japanese War in order to become prosperous and strong. Most of the governors general and governors had been aware that Luying troops could hardly persist and wanted to reduce them moderately. Meanwhile, under the premise of maintaining the existing military system, they wanted to adopt western-style method to train military talents, and they put the measures raised by several governors general during westernization Movement into practice. That was to learn the weapon technique of the west in order to improve military equipments and found the military industries and schools. A few governors general and governors, such as Zhang Zhidong, promoted the modern transition of traditional military through a series of practices that included the introduction of western military system, strategy, tactics, and military culture.Building railway and exploiting mines was also an important policy to make Qing court rich and strong during that period. On the issue of building railway, most governors general and governors had fully realized its emergency and necessity. They discussed the specific problems such as the resources of funds and the sections planned to be built. Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi also positively proposed to set up Railway Ministry and appoint minister to manage, program and monitor the railway construction. On the issue of exploiting mine, governors general and governors who advocated the westernization movement positively adopted the assumption of Qing dynasty, and put forward that the old-fashioned developmental mode of mining industry should be reformed on the basis of adopting the western machines and technologies Meanwhile, schools of mining affairs should be set up to foster the mining talents. Thus, appealed by Qing government’s policy of compensating for and benefiting the industry and commerce, a lot of governors general and governors promoted the economic advancement through the development of mining industry, transportation and commerce.Setting up schools and cultivating qualified talents were an important guarantee for the prosperity of nation. The methods of personnel training which the governors general and governors have taken were either to adjust the teaching contents of old academy or to establish new school and adopt the western curriculum and teaching methods. More importantly, Zhang Zhidong, Chen Baozhen, Hu Pinzhi, Liao Shoufeng and Huang Huaisen promoted and deepened the reform of imperial examination system by setting the contents and forms of the examination. Therefore, the governors general and governors promoted the modern transition of traditional education through a series of practices that included altering academies, founding schools, and reforming the imperial examination system.As complex, changeable political figures, some of the governors general and governors had hindered the reform development. A few of them were conservative. Li Bingheng and Tan Zhonglin were typical representatives. They once said that it was not necessary to reform and learn from the west in order to be prosperous, and what they needed to do stick to the convention and tradition. They opposed the construction of the railroads and the mining industry, refused to establish new school and reform the imperial examination system, and then shackled the reform. Some others, such as Fu Run, De Shou, De Xin, who lack foreign affairs experience, catered to the reform development in public but opposed to it in private. They also delayed the development of the reform measures. More importantly, when the reform touched the personal political powers and the economic interests, the governors general and governors on one hand showed loyalty to the Qing court and carried out the reform positively. On the other hand, they seized the opportunity to get more political capitals and the economic interests, thus expanding their own governance, and strengthening their power gradually.The Qing court’s westernization movement from 1895 to 1898 had been impelled by many political powers among them, the governors general and governors were an indispensable part. Except for a few who stubbornly and openly revisited western learning, more than half of them not only became the advisers and supporters, but also the practitioners in westernization movement, and thus having deep influence the social changes of the late Qing dynasty.更多还原