【作者】 韩东；

【导师】 俞思念；

【作者基本信息】 华中师范大学 ， 科学社会主义与国际共运， 2009， 博士

【摘要】 国家具有双重性质,即阶级性与公共性。国家必须履行公共职能才能保证政治统治上的稳固,也就是说只有为社会发展提供必要的公共服务,国家权力才具备存在的必要性。因此,公共服务是国家权力生长的缘起,是国家权力存在的价值。但是随着历史发展,国家必然走向消亡,所以由国家为社会提供公共服务并非是人类社会的永恒主题。在国家走向消亡的过程中,国家最初因为要为社会提供公共服务而拥有的权力也将逐步回归社会。在政体层面,国家权力回归社会的基本表现是人民民主的实现,而实现人民民主的必要手段是扩大公民参与。在此基础上,如果重新审视公共服务社会化,就会发现公共服务社会化实际上就是国家权力回归社会的表现形式。在现代民主政治过程中,扩大公民参与的基本途径就是结社,实现社团参与,而公共服务社会化改革中不可或缺的组织载体就是民间组织,因此公共服务社会化就构成了对扩大公民参与的有效回应。可以说,研究公共服务社会化问题在认识国家本质和民主的实现过程特别是社会主义民主建设和政治发展的道路有着重要的作用。在现实中,公共服务所包含的内容非常广泛,农业灌溉就是其中之一。20世纪80年代以来,世界各国在农业灌溉服务体制改革中普遍将实现参与式灌溉管理确立为基本的目标模式。由于参与式灌溉管理从内容上看,实现了农业灌溉服务组织机构的社会化、运行管理的社会化、资源投入的社会化、绩效评估与问责的社会化。所以,参与式灌溉管理在本质上就是公共服务社会化在农业灌溉领域的具体体现。从全球化的视角来看,其他国家和地区在参与式灌溉管理的探索上要领先于我国。因此,其他国家和地区的参与式灌溉管理经验会对我国的参与式灌溉管理改革具有一定的指导意义。从实践的角度出发,开展参与式灌溉管理实践的既包括发达国家也包括发展中国家,这说明实现参与式灌溉管理在世界范围内是各国灌溉管理体制改革的基本共识。当代的参与式灌溉管理实践首先出现于发达国家。20世纪70年代以后,由于各发展中国家普遍遭受到经济危机的影响,政府公共财政明显不足,因此大幅度削减对国有灌区的投入,进而造成农业灌溉服务效率的低下,这也是近30年以来各发展中国家实行参与式灌溉管理改革的一个共同的历史背景。当然,以世界银行为首的国际援助机构在参与式灌溉管理理念由发达国家向发展中国家传递的过程中也发挥着不可忽视的作用。在国际援助机构的要求下,墨西哥、土耳其、哥伦比亚、菲律宾等发展中国家都陆续走上参与式灌溉管理之路。在中国,台湾地区也早于大陆地区实行参与式灌溉管理体制,农田水利会是台湾地区实行参与式灌溉管理的基本模式。总体来看,其他国家和地区的参与式灌溉管理实践,有得也有失,将这些经验总结起来会对我国的参与式灌溉管理改革提供有益的启示。我国参与式灌溉管理改革并不是突然发生,而是一次与改革之前的灌溉管理体制之间有着承接关系的制度变革。要理解我国为什么会走向参与式灌溉管理,就必须了解在此之前我国灌溉管理体制的历史沿革。根据历史资料显示,我国早在封建时期的灌溉管理中就已经存在有民间自主治理活动。到了民国时期,我国基层农田水利管理中依然延续了封建时期民间自主治理的传统。尽管在这一历史阶段,国家已经开始着手统一全国水政,试图通过法制建设将旧有的民间自主治理机制纳入到国家管控制之下,但是却没有能够获得成功。在1949年新中国成立以后,历经了封建时期和民国时期的民间水利组织被视为封建残余而遭到全面清理,取而代之的是由国家主导建立的各种农民经济合作组织。当然,这些农民经济合作组织已经不再是单纯的社会组织,尤其是人民公社更是明确具备了“政社合一”的制度特征。这就导致了人民公社在农田水利的建设和管理过程中,更多地是为了贯彻国家的意志,用水户不再具有自主参与的环境和能力。因此,1978年改革开放以前,我国的灌溉管理体制呈现出国家化的基本面貌。改革开放以后,市场经济建设成为社会主义改革的主导旋律。为了增添我国农田水利事业发展的活力,市场机制在这一历史时期被引进到灌溉管理中来,一般被称之为农村小型水利工程产权制度改革。在产权制度改革过程中,小型水利工程的经营权、管理权被承包给个别村民或联户。从公共管理理论的角度来看,这就是公共服务民营化。所以,改革开放以后,我国灌溉管理体制与之前的国家化相比发生了重大变化,这个变化就是开始呈现出民营化的特点。上述三个历史阶段从总体上构成了我国参与式灌溉管理改革的历史前提。1994年开始,通过世界银行的援助项目,我国得以正式引进了参与式灌溉管理理念并在实践中开始进行试点工作,由此正式拉开了我国参与式灌溉管理改革的序幕。试点工作首先在湖北和湖南两地展开。但是2000年以前,我国的参与式灌溉管理实践主要还是依附于外援项目,外援项目决定了实施改革的具体地区。也就是说,参与式灌溉管理实践还没有在全国范围内成为一种基本的政策导向。2000年以后,由于在试点工作中取得了一定的成绩,参与式灌溉管理改革开始得到了中央政府的明确支持。中央政府支持参与式灌溉管理改革的具体表征就是各项为参与式灌溉管理理念在全国范围内推广构建有利环境的政策文件陆续出台。截止到2006年,我国已有30个省(自治区、直辖市)不同程度地开展了用水户参与灌溉管理的改革,组建了2万多个各种形式的农民用水户协会。这些协会所管理的灌溉面积近667万hm~2,参与农户6000多万人,在大型灌区由协会管理的田间工程控制面积达到32%。从具体实践来看,我国参与式灌溉管理改革的基本模式就组建民间组织性质的农民用水户协会。通过10多年的实践,我国农民用水户协会在发展过程中既取得了可喜的成效,也遭遇了诸多发展困境。而在这些表面困境的背后其实在隐藏着更为深层次的原因。在分析了制约我国参与式灌溉管理改革进一步推进的深层次原因之后,论文的着重点正在于对深化我国参与式灌溉管理改革提出总体设想和政策建议。更多还原

【Abstract】 According to the Marxism,the state has twofold nature,one is class nature,the other one is public character.The state must perform its public function so that it can guarantee the stability of its political rule.In other words,only when the state provides public services which is needed for development of society,the state power can possess its legitimacy foundation.For this reason,public services are the origin of growth of the state power,and are the value of state power.But,the state provides public services to the society which is not eternal subject during human society’s development,the state theory of Marxism indicates that the state will go forward withering away necessarily.During the process of withering away of the state,the power of state which is from the society for providing public services will go back to the society gradually.The people’s democracy of the Marxism also indicates that the power of state going back to the society is registered as the enforcement of people’s democracy,and the citizen participation is the necessary means for the enforcement of people’s democracy.On that basis,if we survey the socialization of public services newly,we will find that the socialization of public services actually is the presentation of state power going back to the society.Because forming an association is the basic way to broaden citizen participation,and NGO is the indispensable cartier of socialization of public services.In reality,the content of public services is very abroad,irrigation service is one of those.After 1980s,the reforms of irrigation management in many countries all set their goal for Participatory Irrigation Management. Because from the content of PIM,it brings about the socialization of organizations,socialization of operation and maintenance,socialization of resource input,the socialization of evaluate and accountability.So,PIM is the embodiment of socialization of public services in the irrigation service.The time of the other countries and Taiwan Region carried out PIM is earlier than us.So,we can draw lessens from the other countries and Taiwan Region about PIM.Around the world,both developed countries and developing countries have carried out PIM.The contemporary PIM first appeared in the developed countries,for example USA and Japan.After 1970s,because of the economic crisis,many developing countries have to cutting down the input to state-owned irrigation districts.This is the common context of PIM in many developing countries in last 30 years.Of cause, the World Bank also plays an important role in progressing PIM of many developing countries.Under the request from World Bank,many developing countries include Mexico,Turkey,Colombia, Philippines and so on began to carry out PIM.For China,the time of Taiwan Region carried out PIM is also earlier than China’s mainland Area.Irrigation association is the main form in Taiwan Region.In the China’s mainland Area,PIM was continued from the preceding irrigation management.If we want to understand why PIM could appear in our country,we must find out the history of irrigation management in China.According to historical information,there are irrigation self-management in the feudal age.Tongji Weir in Zhejiang,Tongli Channel in Shanxi and Dujiang Weir in Sichuan all are emblematical delegates of irrigation self-management in the feudal age. During the republican period,the irrigation management in our country continued the tradition of self-management in the feudal age.Although during this period the state had begun to consolidate the water administration,the state tried to take the irrigation self-management under its control through legalization,but the state failed.After 1949,the old irrigation groups were cleared by the government. As the substitute,many kinds of farmer cooperative economic organization which is created by the state were set up.Of course,these farmer cooperative economic organizations did not keep its nongovernmental character any more,especially the peoples commune was "political and social unity".This character endowed the peoples commune to manage irrigation under the control of state, water users din not have ability to participate irrigation management by self-determination.So,the basic character of the irrigation management in China was nationalization after 1949.After reform and opening-up,the construction of market economy became the core of socialist reform.For enhancing the energy in development of drainage and reclamation,market mechanism was introduced into irrigation management,this was known as Reform of property rights system of small hydraulic in countryside.During this reform,the right of management is contracted out.From the view of public management,this essence of property rights system reform is the privatization of public services.So, the character of irrigation management in our country had begun to change from nationalization to privatization.From 1994,the theory of PIM began to carry out pilot project with the help from the World Bank. The pilot projects firstly were carried out in Hubei and Hunan.But until 2000,PIM in our country still were attached itself to the international assistance projects.In other words,implementing PIM had not become basic policy orientation in nationwide.After 2000,because of the achievement from PIM pilot projects,central government began to support PIM to spread in nationwide.The main form for PIM in our country is Water User Association,WUA.After 10 years,PIM in our country not only has achieved remarkable success,but also is confronted with many problems.These problems which hinder the reform show up universality in space,and immobility in time,so in the background of these superficial problems there are some reasons which are more deep-seated.After analysis of the more deep-seated reasons why PIM in our country can not go forward any more,we must provide the overall vision and policy proposals for the deepening of PIM in China.更多还原