人性与政治

【作者】 周前程；

【导师】 侯才；

【作者基本信息】 中共中央党校 ， 马克思主义哲学， 2009， 博士

【摘要】 政治实际上是人们谋取利益的特殊手段,同时也是运用政治权力对人类的某生活方式的提倡和维护,这隐含的前提就是某一类人的生活是最合乎人的生活,或者说某一类人更是人,由此必然导致对人性的追问。人性与政治的关系由此而成为政治哲学的根本问题,但这一问题长期以来却被人们所忽视。自从政治哲学产生以来,不同时期的政治思想家虽然都是从人性出发来探讨政治的规律、主题和目的,但是都没有明确提出人性在政治中的基础地位问题,更没有自觉地或有意识地从人性出发去阐述政治、政治思想及政治制度。在社会主义国家,由于人性和人道主义最早是由资产阶级思想家所明确提出,因而总认为人性或人道主义属于资产阶级的意识形态而在政治研究和实践中加以拒斥。由此而导致了社会主义国家及其政党在人性、人权和人道主义领域的话语权的丧失。然而,既然政治生活是人的生活的一个重要组成部分,政治是影响人的生活的一个重要的维度,那么,仅政治与人的这一关系就足以使人们不能对人性予以忽视。因为,政治所关注的根本问题无非就是人的利益的获得问题,由此而追问什么人应该获得哪些利益的问题,或者说哪种人更具有人的本性,因而具有获得资源的优先权的问题。政治的正当性就是由此而衍生而来,人性决定政治,不同的人性观导致了不同的政治观。所以,究其实质,政治实际是对某一阶级生活方式的确认和保障。由此必须涉及谁的生活方式才是正当的,适宜的,或者说,谁的生活才是真正的人的生活。因此,人之为人的本性也就成了政治的根本出发点。人性与政治的关系有两个方面,一是人性与政治的关系,这是从人本身来探讨人与政治的关系问题。它所关注的重点是,人的所有活动都是以人性的实现而展开的;人的发展同时也是生产力的发展,人的发展同时也是社会的发展。二是经济与政治的关系。无论从现实或理论上而言,这都是人与人的对象的关系的一个方面,而不是全部。因为人的对象不仅包括人本身及生活中的他者,也包括自然物,经济只是其中之一。但是,由于经济是人的生存和发展的基础,也就是说,没有物质基础,人就不可能是现实的。因此,在马克思主义那里,人与对象的关系主要是指人与物的关系。在此一维度上,经济与政治的关系即如何获取生活对象自然成了政治生活的主要问题。马克思的政治哲学即是从此一维度展开对人与政治的论证的,但却是以人与对象的统一为前提的。因此马克思的唯物主义作为现实人的解放和发展的学说,是人道主义的一种完备形态。而马克思的继承者则忽略了这一点。也就是说,从人本身来阐述人与政治的关系,一直是马克思之后的马克思主义政治哲学忽视的领域。由此导致人与人的对象的分离,忽视了人自身的发展和存在,同样导致了资本主义社会中的“人为物役”的状况的发生和重回到马克思所批评的那种敌视人的唯物主义。由于特殊和现实的国情和受苏联意识形态的影响。中国的政治学界对政治问题的研究基本也是从人的对象的角度展开的,人性被摒弃于中国学者和政治家的视野之外,人性、人权、人道主义一直是中国马克思主义研究者的禁区。改革开放以后,一方面由于实践的发展,人的发展问题越来越成为中国社会所必须解决的重大而紧迫的问题,另一方面也由于思想家和政治家对教条主义的逐步克服而对马克思的政治哲学的理解的全面而深入,人的问题在中国政治生活中的地位日益凸显,以人为本遂成了中国政治生活中的基本理论,由此必然导致对传统政治思想和政治制度的重新审视和改革。因此,从历史上政治思想家有关人性与政治的关系探讨中寻找规律性的认识,以为中国政治体制改革提供理论上的支持、为中国政治文明建设进行理论上的论证,就成了当今中国政治哲学研究者的基本任务。当然,这种理论的探讨和规划并必然不涉及政治思想和制度的具体建构,只是对人们的现实政治生活中存在的问题提出理论上的分析,并为政治生活的建构提供理论上的或方向上的论证,以重塑人在政治中的主体地位。具体来说,本文从如下几个方面展开:中国传统政治哲学从总体而言都是谈论人事的,如何成人一直是中国古代思想家探讨的主要问题。儒、道、法三家虽然在对人的看法上有异,但都是从人禽之辨出发来认识人的。在人性与政治的关系问题上逻辑路径也是一致的:都是从人的本性中引伸出政治制度的原则,主题的。而且,在中国古代的政治哲学中,人性不仅是政治的起点,原则和目标,也是政治优劣的根本标准。只有成人才能成为政治权利和政治权力的拥有者。西方古典政治哲学中的人性与政治关系。在这一时期,西方思想家大都把人性规定为理性,以理性作为人享有政治权利的标准和依据;而理性又往往归结为知识。因此,这一时期的政治思想主要是从拥有知识的多少来判断一个人的完善程度,并以此作为其拥有政治权力和政治权利的依据的。社会的等级制度就是由人对理性或知识的拥有程度来规定的。最佳统治者的问题也是由此而来的。在近代西方哲学中,由于人人平等的观念的传播和普及,那么人们在人性上是平等的,至少在理论上人人都可以成为统治者。由此古典政治哲学中所言的人性的差等就不能成立了,由此而来的政治等级制度也必然终结。发展及此,政治问题就主要由最好的统治者转变为怎样选择统治者的问题,即变成一个纯粹的程序问题。政治科学化正是由此而发端的。这种理论的发展,必然导致政治权威的被祛魅化和人们政治生活的平面化。也就是说,西方近、现代政治是以人性平等这一观念为契机的。至于思想家们如何规定人性,那倒是次要的问题。马克思主义政治哲学同样以人性的变革为前提和基础。在马克思看来,现实的人是人及其对象的统一体。人一旦与人的对象分离,那么人就不再是现实的人,人的对象也不再是人的对象。由此,如何实现人与对象的统一,使人成为现实的人,则成了马克思主义政治思想的根本问题。马克思及其继承者对人性与政治的探讨就是由此而展开的。在这一探讨中,马克思主要是从人的对象这一层面来探讨人的现实性的。而马克思后的马克思主义者则主要从对象而不是从人的对象来进行探讨,从而偏离了马克思所开创的政治哲学的轨道。这也是马克思主义内部人道主义与唯物主义争论的基本原因。中国的马克思主义者同样也受到了这一偏向的影响。人性与政治的关系辩证。从历史来看,所有政治思想家都是从人性出发来构建、论证自己的政治理论大厦并建构政治制度的,其区别仅在于对人性的理解不同。而这种对人性的不同理解又是以各自的生活条件为基础的,也就是说,所谓的人性,就是不同思想家对自身生活条件和方式的肯定,政治只不过是这一生活方式的意识形态化和制度化。就此而言,人性决定政治,政治的正当性在于其对人性和人的主体地位的维护。另一方面,由于人与人的对象是统一的,政治则是控制人的对象的最有力工具,政治权力通过控制人的生存和生活对象而对人的生存和生活产生了甚至是决定性的影响,这一作用即政治对人性的发展有时具有决定作用。因此,人性与政治的关系是辩证的。以人性为政治立法,实现人性与政治的良性互动是人的发展和政治发展的即建立符合人性发展要求的政治的根本要求。当代中国语境下的人性与政治。马克思主义是中国社会的根本指导思想,马克思关于现实的人的理论是中国政治哲学建构和政治体制改革的理论指南和现实基础。中国的政治要符合现实的人的发展的要求,有赖于对中国人的素质和中国的政治制度进行改善和提高,人性的完善和政治制度的完善是相伴而行的。通过政治制度提高人的素质,以高素质的人建立高素质的政治生活,实现人性与政治的良性互动,实现其共同发展和提升,是中国政治体制改革的根本任务。更多还原

【Abstract】 Politics in fact is people’s special method in seeking the benefit, is simultaneously to utilize the political authority to advocate and maintain some style of human life. Its premise concealed is that the life style of some class should be considered to conform best with human’s life, that’s to say, some class of people are human. This inevitably causes an examination to human nature. So, the relations between the human nature and the politics become the basic question of the political philosophy, which has continuously been neglected. Since the political philosophy being, the political thinkers of different times all discussed the political rules, subjects and goals from the angle of human nature, but they have not proposed explicitly that the human nature should own the foundation status in politics, not elaborated determinedly or consciously politics, political thoughts and political system.based on the human nature. In socialist countries, because the human nature and humanitarianism are always thought to belong to bourgeoisie’s ideology and repelled in the political research and practice because they are proposed explicitly by the bourgeoisie thinkers.thus the socialist countries and the political party losed their word power in the domain of the human nature, the human rights and humanitarianism. However, since the political life is an important constituent of human life, and politics is an important dimension to affect human life, only politics to people is too important to be neglected.The basic question to politics is nothing but human benefit distribution, which causes the question that who should get what benefit, or which class has human natural disposition, thus should obtain the priority.This is what the political validity depends on. Human nature decides politics and different human nature views cause different political views.Therefore, in essence, politics is actually to confirm and safeguard the life style of some class.Whose life style is right, suitable, or whose life is the genuine human life? Therefore,the human natural disposition becomes the political basic starting point.The relations between people and politics have two aspects, one is of the human nature and the politics, to discuss the relations from human itself,which focuses on that all human activities are launched by the human nature realization; Human development simultaneously is the productive forces development, also the society’s development.The other is of the economy and the politics. Theoretically or practically, it is an apect of the relations between the human and his objects, but not all, because human objects include human itself and“he”in life, but also include the natural objects, the economy is only one of them.But, because the economy is the foundation of the human survival and the development, in other words,the human is impossibly realistic without material,the relations between the human and its objects mainly refers to that of the human and the things in Marxism.On this dimension, the relations between economy and politics,namely how to gain the life object naturally become the main question in the political life.Marx’s political philosophy discusses the human and the politics on this dimension, but takes the human and the object unification as the premise.Therefore Marx’s materialism,as the theory of human being’s liberation and development, is one kind of complete shape of the humanitarianism.But Marx’s successor has neglected this point.In other words, elaborating the relations between the human and the political from human own, is always a domain which Marxism politics philosophy has neglected after Marx. That causes the human separation from human objects, neglect of human own development and existence, causes the“thing controls human”similarly in the capitalist society and the return to the materialism against human which Marx had criticized.Because of the special national reality and the Soviet Union ideological influence, China’s political science circles launches the political research from human’s objects, with the human nature outside the Chinese scholars and statesmen’s vision. The human nature, the human rights, and the humanitarianism are always the forbidden areas to Marxism researchers in China. Since the reform and open policy, on the one hand, practices makes the human’s development a more and more vital and urgent problem for the Chinese society to have to solve, and on the other hand the thinkers and the statesmen gradually overcome the dogmatism and understand Marx’s political philosophy comprehensively and thorough, which result in that the human’s question highlights day by day in Chinese political life and humanist has then become elementary theory, in chain inevitably cause examination and reform to the traditional political thoughts and system. Therefore, seeking the regular understanding from the disussion of the political thinkers in history about the relations between human nature and politics to provide the theoretical support to the political system reform, and the theoretical proof for the Chinese politics civilization construction, has become now the Chinese politics philosophy researcher’s basic task.Certainly, it is not inevitable for this theorical discussion and plan to involve the political thinking and system construction in detail, but to propose the theorical analysis to the question existing in people’s political life, and to provide theoretical or directional proof for the political life construction in remoulding human’s mainbody status in politics.In detail, this article includes the following aspects:In essence, Chinese traditional political philosophy all discusses the human.How to be the human is always the main question which the ancient thinkers discussed. Buddhism, Taoism, and Legalism had different views to the human, but all distinguishes the human from the birds and beasts .In the relation between the human nature and politics they had the same logical way: evolve the political system principles and subjects from human’s natural disposition.Moreover, in Chinese ancient political philosophy, the human nature was not only the political beginning, principles and goal, also the basic standard for the political fit or unfit quality.Only being human marked able to own the political rights and authority.The relations between human nature and politics in the western classical political philosophy are discussed then.In ancient time, most of the Western thinkers regarded rationality as human nature,and only those who were considered to have had rationality could be allowed to enjoy the political rights.And the rationality is often sumed up as the knowledge.Therefore, kinds of political thought judged a person’s perfect degree by how much knowledge he had, on which his political authority and rights depended.The hierarchical system was built on the degrees of the rationality or the knowledge,so that the theory of the best rulers came.Modern West philosophy thought that everybody is equal in the human nature ,and,at least theoretically,everybody may become the ruler. Then the political hierarchical system inevitably ended because its theorical basis in the classical political philosophy was gone.The theory the best ruler was replaced by how to choose the ruler, a complete procedure.The political science started here.The development of this theory caused the political authority to be deprived of mystery inevitably and the political life to be common.In other words, the modern western politics depended on the idea that everybody is equal in human nature.What was the human nature was a secondary question.Marxist political philosophy also took human nature transformation as its premise and foundation. Marx thought that human being of the reality is the entity of human being and its objects.Once separated, the human being is no longer of the reality, and the objects no longer for human being.Therefore, how to realize the unification of the human and its objects, and make human being that of the reality, became the basic question of Marxist political thought.Marx and his successors began their discussion about the human nature and politics here.In the discussion, Marx angled the objects of human being to discuss the actuality of human being while Marxists afterwards mainly did the objects not of human being, thus deviated from the political philosophy which Marx founded.This is the basic cause of the argument about humanitarianism and materialism in Marxism. Marxists of China had also been influenced by this deviation.The relations between human nature and politics are dialectical.In the history, every political thinker are embark from the human nature established his building of political theory and system on the foundation of human nature, different only in understanding to it.And one’s understanding lied in his different living condition. In other words, the so-called human nature is one thinker’s affirmatiom to his own living condition and style, which are ideologized and systemized to have made politics. In light of this, human nature decides politics, and the political validity lies in its sustainment to the human nature and the human’s main body status.On the other hand, because the human and the human’s objects are unified, and politics is the most powerful tool to control the human’s objects, the political authority influences a person’s exsitence and life,sometimes decisively by controlling the objects that one’s life depends on, which means sometimes politics has the decisive function to the human nature development.Therefore, the relations between human nature and politics are dialectical.To keep politics under human nature, and realize the virtuous interaction of human nature and politics the foundation of the human’s development and the political development, to establish the politics conforming to the human nature development.The following is about human nature and politics under the linguistic environment in contemporary China. Marxism is the basic guiding ideology, and Marx’s theory about human being of the reality is the theorical guide and practical foundation to Chinese politics philosophy construction and the political system reform.To make Chinese politics conform to the development of human being of the reality, depends on the improvement and the enhancement to Chinese’s quality and China’s political system. Perfecting human nature accompanies with doing the political system.To improve the human’s quality through the political system, establish the high-qualitied political life by people of high quality, and realize the virtuous interaction of human nature and the politics to make communal development and promotion, is the basic duty of Chinese political reform.更多还原