晚清兵制变革思想及实践

【作者】 赵治国；

【导师】 戴鞍钢；

【作者基本信息】 复旦大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2008， 博士

【摘要】 本文主要论述了晚清兵制(兵役)变革思想转型及实践,选择了传统“民兵”制在晚清社会的转变历程为主要研究对象。以此说明近代中国军事转型过程中,中西因素的交汇影响与流变。是否实行“民兵”以及如何实行“民兵”是近代兵制变革思想的重要组成部分。就晚清而言,“民兵”思想在兵制从传统向近代的转变过程中起到汇通中西的作用,新政时期采取“征兵”即是此种思想的表现。而近代西方战争由“有限战争”向“总体战”演变的趋势,也使“以民为兵”成为必然的选择。第一章主要论述清朝传统兵制(兵役)的特点、历史地位与弊端。就中国王朝兵制的演变历程而言,清朝兵制继承了此前“兵民相分”的兵制。但清廷又有所调整,实行的是完全的“养兵制”。此种制度有其“合理性”,符合“欧力东渐”前的社会条件。但这种“合理性”又是有限的,依然无法避免此前王朝兵制难以持久的老问题。而清朝中后期兴起的勇营招募制度有代替经制兵制的趋势,但这种演变依然不脱王朝兵制更替的轨迹。第二章着重评述了中国传统社会为解决养兵制弊端所作的努力。自兵民相分以来,关于要不要养兵以及如何养兵一直是传统兵制变革思想争论的焦点。在此基础上逐步形成三种思路:首先、放弃养兵制度,恢复“三代”兵民合一或者唐代府兵制。其建议大致相当于今天的国家“民兵”制。此种思想虽然自宋明以来一直颇有市场,然而《皇朝经世文编》搜集的各种文章大都认为这种设想是迂腐之谈。其次、地方军事化建议。此种建议又分为两种,一是要求地方驻军归地方官统辖。一是实行官督“民”办之乡兵,也可称为地方民兵制。第三、坚持王朝养兵制度,“以有限之饷练有限之兵”。通过对传统变革思想的分析,可以得出的结论是:虽然中国社会存在着改善兵制弊端的努力,但都不可能从根本上改变导致兵制堕落的趋势。而恢复“民兵”(无论是建立国家民兵还是地方民兵)尚缺乏必备的社会、政治条件,“药方只贩古时丹”面临的困难是药方难贩古时丹。此时期的民兵论的转型意义在于它构成了中国军制转型的内在思想源泉,是随后“化西”的主要动力。第三章主要研究了清人在认识西方兵制(兵役)基础上提出的各种建议。“欧力东渐”是兵制转型的外部因素。时人认为,西方军事制度实行的“征兵制”与“预备役制”较清朝兵制的优势在于:全民皆兵,人人知兵;更番入伍,按年退伍,费用少而养兵多。西方兵制的优势恰恰是传统兵制的弊端,因此,参酌西法成为晚清兵制变革思想的主流。外部因素虽然促进了近代兵制变革思想转型,但它同时也受制于传统社会的影响。清人认为西方兵制的特点与古代的“民兵”一致。这种认识的结果是传统“民兵”思想重新兴起,最终导致近代征兵制的建立。不过新政时期确定的“征兵”制度,还不是完全的西式征兵制而是参酌西法,寓征于募(征募本地人当兵)。第四章则以江苏(南京、苏州)征兵动员为个案研究,探讨传统社会实行“征兵”时出现的问题。从南京、苏州两地的征兵动员情况来看,清廷最初实行征兵还比较努力。从机构设置到征兵动员过程都比较完善。加之当时江苏地区风气日开,征兵动员比较顺利。然而,征兵并不因动员结束而终止,相反,士兵入伍只是开始,它需要方方面面的配合才能收效。阻碍征兵的因素本文主要从征兵动员、退伍实践和军队生活三方面展开。首先、因为缺乏相应的配套组织,征兵并未达到动员社会成员入伍的目的,而且征兵宗旨的歧误也导致士兵入伍动机不纯。其次、退伍安置的失败。退伍对于征兵的作用在于,一方面只有退伍方能实行二次征兵。另一方面,只有对退伍兵的合理安置才能建立充足的后备力量。但是因为退伍安置之难,使两者都未能实现。最后、军队生活不堪忍受,与宣传时大相径庭。而军官多以旧军人之手段对待士兵,最终使征兵难以继续展开。结论部分:西方军事转型对战争的影响在于战争形式向总体战转变,任何一个国家如果不能动员自己所有的人力、物力加入战争的话,那么就只有灭亡的命运。时代要求实行“以民为兵”。但若达到这一目的,又不仅仅靠军事自身变革就可以完成,需要政治、社会转型配合。王朝建军思想主旨在于维护一家、一姓的统治。王朝政权的私属性决定了它无法改变“以民为敌"的本性,自然也无法做到“以民为兵”。对于随后的军事改革而言,要实行“以民为兵”的征兵制并不是简单地将民众“诱骗”到军队后就万事大吉,它同时也要将对士兵的“启蒙”贯穿其中。否则,一支缺乏“主义”的军队依然是统治人民的“工具”。更多还原

【Abstract】 This dissertation is a study of military revolution in late Qing dynasty. The changes of the traditional militia thinking have been chosen as the main aspect to describe the interactions of the traditional and modern factors during the changes of the modern Chinese military.The main point of the traditional military revolution thinking is whether to practice militia and how to practice militia. The militia thinking has an interactions of the east and the west play during the course of the transformation from the tradition to the modern time ,and the practice of conscription gives expression to this thinking. Also, the trend of modern west war from the limited war to the general war made it possible that an entire nation in armed .Certainly, there are variable ways to deal with it because of the different of national conditions and traditional conditions .The rest of this paper is organized as follows.Section 1, the characteristics, historical standing, disadvantages of the Qing traditional system of military service are described. As far as the development of the Chinese military system, the Qing military inherited the policy that selected army-man from regular group which continued from Qin-han dynasty. And the same time, the Qing sovereign have some changes ,they insisted that all army-man should been groomed by the government. This system is reasonable in an agriculture society. But it was not perfect and it had nor avoided the army’s degenerate, which existed before the Qing dynasty. And the change from the eight-banner and Ivying to the yongying was also continued the orbit of the tradition military.Section 2, the military revolution attempts to maintain army before the first optimum war are presented. After the separation of the populace and the army-man, whether to maintain army or not and how to maintain army are two focuses in the discuss of traditional military transform. Then, three thoughts were gradually formed. Firstly, to abandon the traditional standing army and resume national militia. The suggestion was generally like the modern militia system. Although this thinking was welcomed after Song-ming dynasty, the main aspect of traditional revolution thinking was that national militia to be impractical. Secondly, the suggestion of militarizing the localities. And this suggestion was classified into two kinds. One is to let the local government control the local garrison. The other is to establish Tuanlian (a kind of militia).the third, maintain the imperial standing army. But the regulatory regime should been changed. Although people tried to correct the traditional standing army maladies before the first optimum war, the traditional society did not have the possible conditions.Section 3, the military revolution which deliberate the western army are described. The western threaten was the main factors of military revolution in late Qing dynasty. People thought that the superiority of western military was wealthy studying. And the same time, people regarded the modern military system as militia, which contained in sandai(xia, shang, zhou). This made the traditional militia thinking been a upsurge in late Qing-dynasty and it made the establishment of conscription in the New-policy period.Section 4, the practice of new army in Jiangsu province are presented. The Qing government was hard to practice new army in the period of new policy. They established the conscription system. In Jiangsu the conscription had obtained a good start. But Qing government’ draft have been foiled by many factors such as the lack of mobilization, the problem of demobilized soldier, low performance of army-men.Each developing country must have the ability that mobilize it’s all manpower and material treasure to sustain a modern war. For this purpose the royal principle that regard the army as a tool which was used to suppress inner populace should been changed. But the Qing sovereign maintained that the army’s first principle is protecting their own domination, their failure are not avoided.更多还原