【作者】 万其刚；

【导师】 徐显明；

【作者基本信息】 中国政法大学 ， 法学理论， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 在我们这个权利的时代,人权问题受到越来越广泛的关注。人权作为当今世界一种具有普遍性(或普适主义)的现象与观念,已经成为越来越多的人的“共识”乃至生活方式,但它并不就是不可辩驳的。一个(自然)人凭什么就可以主张人权(或权利),根据何在?凭据是什么?因而,追问人权正当性的根据仍然是必要的。本文提出并论证“人的尊严作为人权正当性根据”这一命题。以往一些论者在将“人的尊严”作为人权正当性的根据时候,常常把它作为一个是自明的、当然的前提。不过,我要对这个“自明的、当然的前提”进行追问,意在阐明人的尊严何以成为人权的正当性根据。围绕这一命题,论文用“引论”、“正文”(包括四章)和“结语”的篇幅进行论述。人权来源于人的尊严的理论有悠久的学术历史。在西方,自古希腊开始,经中世纪,文艺复兴运动,许多思想家都很重视人的问题,重视人的尊严和人在宇宙中的地位。启蒙运动时期,关于人的尊严的理论也达到了一个顶峰,其代表人物就是康德。不过,这一理论却并未完全体现在人权制度中,在经历了两次世界大战之后,人的尊严的理论再次受到重视,并在制度层面把人的尊严明确为人权的根据。但是,人的尊严在人权体系中究竟居于什么地位?它与人权是什么关系等问题仍然需要加以阐释和说明。人权的正当性基础即是人权的道德基础。关于人权的思想基础或者正当性基础,主要有三种,本文只着重介绍两种。一是功利主义的人权正当性理论,主张人权是社会的、有限的、可以让渡的、有条件的和可变的权利,权利来自于国家,来自于法律,把社会功利作为人权的根据。二战后的功利主义是在继承边沁、密尔,以及格林、霍布豪斯等人思想的基础上发展起来的。二是自然法的人权正当性理论,认为自然法、抽象人性、理性是人权的来源或根据,人权是天赋的(或神赋的)、自然的、无限的、不可让渡的、无条件的和不变的权利,且这些权利是先于社会而存在的。这种理论在霍布斯、洛克、卢梭那里得到了经典表达,康德则在人权思想领域内发动了又一次革命。二次世界大战以来,特别是20世纪60年代初至70年代中期,西方出现了一些以研究价值为中心的学说,其中以美国哲学家罗尔斯的正义论和法学家德沃金的权利论为代表。对人权特别是对人权正当性根据的界定与研究,必须首先对“人”、“人的尊严”进行界定与研究。这也是本文的重点。人作为极为复杂的存在物,不同学科有着不同的理解,在多重立场下“人及其本质”是不同的。生物学意义上的人来自于大自然,是大自然的一部分,是一个物质的存在。社会学意义上的人是社会中的存在物,是类存在物,社会是人的存在场所或方式。哲学上的人具有主体性和自我意识。主体性是人之为人的根本规定,“人格”就是对人的主体性资格的确认。伦理学意义上的人,强调人是伦理的存在,作为人格的人即是一个道德实践理性的主体。人在根本上不是手段,而是目的。心理学意义上的人是指具有意识的动物或生命有机体。人有思维乃是他或她区别于其他动物的一个根本标志。文化意义上的人作为一种文化的动物,是一种具有语言符号的存在物,是意义的载体和价值的体现者。但是,随着各种遗传学、行为学、历史主义等“科学”的发展,尤其是后现代主义的盛行,人的本质及其理论受到了挑战、遭到了消解。本文认为,只要人(类)还存在,人及其本质问题就始终存在,只不过它会随着社会的发展而不同,应当从整体上来把握人这个极为繁复的存在物。不同学科对“人的尊严”也有不同的理解。生物(学)意义上人的尊严指人的生命形式所享有的、区别于物和其他生命形式的一种特殊的尊贵和庄严。社会(学)意义上人的尊严是指与个人建立了社会关系的他人、群体和社会对个人给予的价值承认和尊重,并由此形成的个人在人们心目中那种令人尊敬、敬畏的地位和身份。法学意义上人的尊严,强调要尊重人,明确了人格的法律意蕴。心理学意义上人的尊严是指人的自尊意识和自尊心理,是由于人认识到自己的主体地位和社会价值而产生的自尊心和自豪感,是属于个人的精神特质。伦理学意义上人的尊严是指人具有至高无上的内在价值或尊严。哲学意义上人的尊严强调,人是一个“真”、“善”、“美”的结合体,是一个审美的存在。针对人性尊严、人格尊严、人类尊严等不同提法,本文主张使用“人的尊严”这一范畴,并进一步对“人的尊严”的内容予以分析说明。一是生命及其尊严。生命是作为个体的人得以存在第一前提;人的生命也是价值标准、伦理目的;生命尊严还包括死亡的尊严。二是理性、非理性与超理性。理性表征着人的尊严,神秘的直觉、内省、意识或下意识也是人作为主体的表征,但超理性象征着人的最高价值。三是自主、自治与自决。人作为“有限理性存在者”,具有自主、自治和自决等特性。自主是一种观念或理念,也是一种能力。四是自律与义务、责任。自律要求人必须在理性选择的指导下,有节制地满足自己的愿望、情感和需要。自律意味着自爱,与义务、责任等紧密相连。五是隐私。隐私往往是指某种权利或是从“权利”的角度来看待的,但它是个人的一种私人空间和生活,不受或不应受到别人的干涉,能够做或想做他所中意的事情。六是创造力和自我实现。其结果就是人的全面发展。本文既以“人的尊严作为人权正当性根据”为题,重点自然就在“人的尊严”上,所以,我用了三章的篇幅来对人及其尊严进行研究界定,显然这是必须的;而这一研究实则要为“人的尊严”何以成为和如何成为人权正当性根据做铺垫,因而,如果说本论文的选题有什么意义、有什么突破或者贡献的话,就主要体现在本文第四章之中,即“人的尊严与人权正当性根据”。我的论述将表明,以“人的尊严”作为人权正当性根据,能有效解决在人权正当性根据问题上所存在的缺陷和不足,使人权正当性理论更加圆融、自洽,使之成为既可爱又可信的理论。人权作为人类的崇高理想,关乎人的存在及其意义,并没有“终结”。本论文旨在对人的尊严作为人权正当性根据予以阐明。从研究思路和方法来说,本文主要是从伦理学或道德哲学的角度来研究的,并采用哲学、心理学、政治学、法学、历史学等的方法,以及独断论(因为从哲学甚至宗教哲学等学科中“断章取义”的做法很容易是“独断论”的,而这在一定程度上说似乎也是必然的)。更多还原

【Abstract】 In the present era of rights,human rights are increasingly concerned. As a universal phenomenon and concept of the current world,human rights have become "consensus" even life style of more and more people,but they are not indisputable.By what can a(natural) person stand for rights? What basis do they have? So it is still necessary to inquire the basis of human rights’ legitimacy.The article puts forward and demonstrates the idea of "person’s dignity as the basis of human rights’ legitimacy".In the past,demonstrating "person’s dignity" as the basis of human rights’ legitimacy,reviewers put it as an inevitable prerequisite.The author tries to inquire the "inevitable prerequisite",and to clarify the reasons for person’s dignity as the basis of human rights’ legitimacy.In order to deal with the proposition,the author divides the article into three parts:introduction,main body,and conclusion.The theory that human rights originate from person’s dignity has long history.In west countries,from ancient Greece,after the Middle Century,to the Movement of Literature and Art’s Rejuvenation,lots of thinkers paid more attention to the question of human person’s dignity and their status in cosmos.In the period of the Enlightenment,the theory of person’s dignity reached its peak,and Kant is the representative.For the theory of person’s dignity was not embodied in human rights system.After the two World Wars,the theory of person’s dignity was emphasized again,and people took person’s dignity as the basis of human rights in the aspect of institution,however,the status of person’s dignity in human rights system and the relationship between human rights and person’s dignity should be demonstrated and explained.The basis of human rights’ legitimacy is the moral basis of human rights.In moral philosophy,"legitimacy" is always connected with "goodness".The basis of human rights legitimacy has mainly three theories: the first is the theory of human rights’ legitimacy of Utilitarianism,which advocates human rights are social,limited,transferable,conditional,and changeable rights,and rights come from nations and laws,at the same time, social utility is the basis of human rights.The second is the theory of human rights’ legitimacy of Natural Law,which maintains that human rights’ origin is Natural Law,abstract humanity and ration,and human rights are innate,natural,unlimited,unalienable,unconditional,and unchangeable rights,and rights exist before society.The third is the.theory of human rights’ legitimacy of Marxism,which demonstrates human rights and their basis according to humans’ nature and their common points,at the same time,rights(including human rights) belong to superstructure,which is up to economic basis.To define and research human rights,especially the basis of human rights’ legitimacy,first we should define and research "human","person’s dignity",which is the emphasis of the article.The person is an extremely complicated existence that has different meanings in different disciplines. In biology person is a part of nature,and a substantive existence.Person is an existence of society,which is a place or style of person in sociology. Person has subject attribute qualification.Philosophy science of mankind emphasizes person’s "spirit","creativity",and "freedom".Person in ethics defines person is ethical existence,which is not measure but self-purpose. Person in psychology is animal or life organism having consciousness. Person has thinking which is the fundamental distinction between person and other animals.Person in cultural meaning is a cultural animal,an existence having language symbol,which is meaning carrier and value representative.But with the development of genetics,science of act, historic,and other sciences,especially post-modernism,human’s nature and its theory was challenged,and was dispelled.The thesis advocates that mankind will stay with human’s nature,but along with developed society, human will be different,so we should research person from a whole prospect."Person’s dignity" has different meaning in different disciplines. Person’s dignity in biology is a special respect and solemnest which is owned by person but not other objects and life forms.Person’s dignity in sociology means to admit the person’s value and respect her/him which is given by other persons,groups;and society having relationship with her/him.Person’s dignity in law emphasizes respecting to man and expressing clearly connotation of personality.Person’s dignity in psychology is person’s self-respect awareness and mentality,which belongs to individual spirit character.Person’s dignity in ethics refers to human’s supreme inner value or dignity.Person’s dignity in philosophy emphasizes that person is an appreciative existence,and a complex of "reality", "goodness",and "beauty".About the different ways of personality dignity,humanity dignity,and mankind dignity,the paper maintain to use the concept of "person’s dignity",and further analyzes and demonstrates content of "person’s dignity".The first is life and its dignity.Life is the first precondition that individual can live.Life has its value.The second is ration,non-ration,and super-ration.Ration embodies person’s dignity,awareness and sub-awareness also embody subject attribute,but super-ration expresses person’s supreme value.The third is self-decision,self-autonomy,and self-determination.Self-decision is a notion,and also a capacity.The fourth is self-regulation,duties,and obligations.Self-regulation means self-respect,and connects with duties and obligations.The fifth is privacy. Privacy always means "rights",but it is an individual private space and life, which should not be interfered by others.Six is creativity and self-realization.Person’s comprehensive development is the basis and essential conditions for mankind’s liberation.The author thinks that he has made the greatest contribution in this paper which the proposition has already been proved why to be and how to be.The relationship between person’s dignity and human rights is:person’s dignity is the basis or ground of human rights,human rights can guarantee to realize person’s dignity.Based on "person’s dignity",the author further remoldls human rights system.As mankind’s lofty ideal,human rights determine person’s existence and meaning,and not "end".The paper aims to demonstrate person’s dignity as the basis of human rights’ validity.In view of research method,the article mainly learns from the ethics or moral philosophy,and uses methods of philosophy, psychology,politics,law,historic,etc.更多还原