【作者】 张晓堂；

【导师】 张晋藩；

【作者基本信息】 中国政法大学 ， 法律史， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 清朝没有以对外贸易法或海外贸易法命名的专门规范与管理对外贸易的法律法规,但《大清律例》、《大清会典》及事例、各部院《则例》、皇帝在对外贸易方面的敕诏谕旨和经过皇帝御批的对外贸易章程规条等法律文献中具有非常丰富的对外贸易法律法规及相应制度的内容,各种法律文献之间具有明显的互补性,在对外贸易法制建设中被锤炼成为一个主旨、立意和原则清晰的法规体系。清朝建立了分工负责相互配合的对外贸易管理体制,在中央政府所设立的礼部、户部、兵部、理藩院均有一部分管理对外贸易的职能。在户部之下设立专门负责对外贸易管理和征收关税的海关,海关监督由户部提名经皇帝批准,同时也接受地方督抚的监督甚至直接由督抚兼管。清朝政府坚持传统的朝贡体系,使外交与外贸高度统一。清朝政府还建立了洋行制度,通过控制行商来控制对外贸易。清朝初年曾经在东南沿海广大地区实行海禁,民间对外贸易几乎完全断绝。康熙统一台湾后开海设关也仅仅是极其有限地允许对外贸易。它高度控制朝贡贸易,高度控制外商来华贸易及其在华的一切活动。对中外贸易的区域、商品、船舶、商人、货币、经营等均规定了越来越苛刻的限制。控制、限制、阻遏甚至摧残成为清朝对外贸易法制的基本特征。清朝在康熙时设立了闽、粤、江、浙四海关,专门管理对外贸易,查验进出口货物并征收进出口关税。为此,清朝不断建立完善海关管理制度。清代海关征税均有定额,后来正税额定制、盈余比较制、短收赔补制、陋规归公制等形成了关税额的递增机制。因此,清朝关税呈现不断加重的趋势。清朝对外贸易法制不但严格限制进口,而且更加严格地限制出口,甚至限制出口严于限制进口,相对西方国家来说非常落后。清朝对外贸易法制把反走私扩大化,防民甚于防盗,对违反禁令者处以重刑,使商人们动辄违法犯禁并受到严刑峻法的惩处,具有明显的反动性。因此,清朝的对外贸易法制在本质上是闭关锁国的劣法。清朝对外贸易法制形成的原因很多也很复杂。维护作为封建专制统治基础的自然经济是封建王朝的本能。清朝疆域辽阔、人民众多、国力强大等因素也都把中国历史上夜郎自大的天朝上国与天下共主观念极大地强化。而对于满清政权来说,要不遗余力地阻止中外人民贸易和交流以防止异端势力与海外势力联合起来从事反抗满清民族统治的活动,是清朝对外贸易法制形成的根本原因。明末清初的中国充满了发展对外贸易的历史机遇,当时的中国社会具备了发展对外贸易的基础、条件和环境。然而,清政府制定了控制、限制、阻遏甚至摧残为基本特征的对外贸易法制,不论它在外贸法规制定和外贸制度建设的技术层面较前代有多大的创新,都只能强化其劣法本质,其所产生的社会后果当然也就十分恶劣。它不但引发了频繁的涉外争端和冲突升级,还摧残了对外贸易的健康发展,损害了商品经济发展和资本主义萌芽的成长,打击了中国社会的变轨冲动,中国社会被严防死守在传统的老路上缓慢走向贫穷、落后、挨打。更多还原

【Abstract】 Actually,there were no laws or regulations entitled international trade laws. Hereby,in this research paper the international trade laws in the Qing Dynasty refer to various legal documents in its civil or criminal laws,government orders concerning foreign-related trade.Found in Da Qing Lv li,Da Qing Hui Dian,Ze Li(cases) of all ministries or in the imperial decrees by emperors,these legal documents covered the principles,policies and practices,management,and tariffs involved in Qing’s international trade,and thus developed into a legal system for its international trade, with clear purposes and objectives and a fixed principle.In the Qing Dynasty,there was a management system for its foreign trade based on responsibility-sharing and cooperation.Different ministries of the central government, Libu(the Rites),Hubu(Finance),Bingbu(Military)、Lifanyuan(Foreign Affairs), shared management of foreign trade.Customs Houses were established under Hubu which controlled foreign trade and collected taxes.The tributary system the Qing authorities clang to made its foreign trade integrated with its diplomacy.What’s more, there was the institution of foreign firms that helped to control foreign trade by offering licensed brokers and forbidding traveling merchants.In the early years of the Qing Dynasty,there was wide ban to foreign trade in south-eastern regions of China imposed by the Qing authorities.As a result, non-governmental foreign trade almost came to a stop.After Taiwan’s return to China in Kangxi Administration,foreign trade was restored only in a very limited way.Ever since,the Qing authorities strictly controlled foreign trade by monopolizing tributary trade,controlling and limiting foreign businessmen and their activities and imposing more and more restrictions on the trade areas,goods,ships,currencies and businesses.It can be easily seen that foreign trade legal system in the Qing Dynasty was established to limit,restrict and even devastate its foreign trade.In Kangxi Administration of the Qing Dynasty,Four Customs Houses were opened respectively in Guangdong,Fujian,Jiangsu and Zhejiang,specializing in managing foreign trade,inspecting imports and exports,and collecting taxes.And the Qing Dynasty finally got an improved system for Customs management and produced tariff system which increased tariff continuously.The foreign trade legal system not only restricted imports but also exports,with even more restrictions on exports,which was very backward,compared with encouragement of exports in the western countries.Besides,this legal system exaggerated smuggling in coastal areas and gave severe penalties to the violators.And the legal system was reactionary for it resulted in easy and frequent violations by the businessmen with heavy punishments waiting for them.So the foreign trade laws in the Qing Dynasty were wicked in that they dosed the country from the outside.Various reasons led to the formation of the foreign trade legal system in Qing Dynasty.Its instinct went first to maintain the natural economy,the foundation on which the feudal autocracy sat.Second,the Qing Dynasty boasted of immense territory,a large population,and a strong national power,which strengthened their illusion of self-importance that they were the central empire.However,the fundamental reason is that the Qing authorities spared no efforts in trying to prevent aliens and foreigners from joining to fight against their empire.The consequences of such a foreign trade legal system were serious,which controlled,limited,deterred and even devastated its foreign trade.Despite any technological improvements or innovations in the construction of its foreign trade institution,the legal system was still wicked.It caused more and more disputes and escalating conflicts with foreign countries.Furthermore,it stopped China’s foreign trade and its commodity economy from developing naturally,delayed the transformation in the Chinese society and pushed China into backwardness,poverty.Consequently,China became bullied by the western powers.更多还原