推销总统：作为执政策略的白宫政治营销

【作者】 张哲馨；

【导师】 孙哲；

【作者基本信息】 复旦大学 ， 国际政治， 2008， 博士

【摘要】 自二十世纪六、七十年代以来,美国政治生态的变迁,特别是利益集团的发展、政治筹码的不断增加,以及府会之间关系的紧张程度加剧,对总统在华盛顿政治中传统上所采用的游说策略与协商策略提出了挑战。随着媒体技术及政治咨询业的进步,肯尼迪之后的总统愈加重视通过民意测验、草根动员及宣传广告等类似于商业营销的方法积极寻求民意对自己总体工作及当前议题的支持。人们把这种新型的总统执政手段称为“白宫政治营销”。简单地说,作为总统执政策略的政治营销就是白宫采用类似商业营销理念与工具进行执政的方法。商业以利润为最终目的,而政治市场上的货币则是民意。随着美国的传统政治生态在后工业时代的不断演变,白宫政治营销活动日益频繁,手段逐渐多样,不仅在很大程度上取代了过去的总统与其他政治行为者之间的沟通和协商原则,还加剧了华盛顿政治过程中的竞争心态。鉴于政治营销学对中国来说是一个较新的学科,本文将重点回答以下问题:什么是政治营销的本质?白宫政治营销活动如何进行?这种新型执政策略得以出现和发展的原因是什么?对美国的总统政治及美国民主又会产生哪些影响?通过对白宫政治营销这种新型执政策略进行系统的梳理和考察,本文的结论为:由于促使总统开始大规模利用民意的那些因素仍然存在,白宫政治营销策略将会不断发展;其结果不仅会进一步扩大总统的权力,还会大大增加总统连任的可能性;假如不对此种发展趋势加以限制,华盛顿政治中的对抗性将持续增大,使美国的多元主义民主表现出更多的零和博弈特征。全文共约十三万字,分为五章。第一章主要回答两个问题:当代美国总统为何愈来愈多地采用政治营销策略?并且,这种策略与注重讨价还价的沟通和协商策略之间的本质区别是什么?第二章对白宫政治营销的发展历史及现状进行考察,包括白宫公关活动的扩大、总统运用诉诸民众策略的发展,以及民意测验的作用。本章试图说明,尽管当代白宫政治营销的原始形态可以追溯到美国建国之初,但直到上世纪六、七十年代,它才真正成为一种用来增加总统权力的机制化手段;并且,自那时起,美国总统开始越来越多地在执政过程中用到这种领导策略。第三章回答总统究竟如何利用政治营销战略的问题。首先介绍白宫营销团队的发展,以及政党和利益集团在营销活动中的作用;之后对白宫政治营销战略的运行模式进行详细阐述,尤其强调此种战略的系统性;最后,借助克林顿政府在2000年成功营销对华永久正常贸易关系法案的案例,对以上模式予以更加具体的解释。第四章通过对1993-94年医疗保健改革法案及1996年联邦预算案中白宫政治营销战略的比较,分析了影响此种战略实施效果的关键变量,具体包括:营销的时机、强度、内部统一性及多种策略之间的配合程度。第五章研究当代白宫的政治营销活动对于总统政治与美国民主的影响。基于多元主义民主理论,本文根据政治营销与传统的游说及协商策略所产生权力的异质性,区分了这两种执政策略所体现的不同的民主特征。最后,文章指出,虽然总统应该对主流民意的方向保持高度敏感,但是,对政治营销战略的过度依赖必然会对美国民主的长期发展产生众多不利的影响。文章的结语除了对本文所做研究进行总结外,还对当代各国政府普遍利用民意调查来加强政策合法性的趋势进行了探讨。更多还原

【Abstract】 The transformation of the political environment in the U.S. since the 1960s and 1970s, especially the development of interest groups, the increase of political stakes and the ever-rising tension between the White House and Capitol Hill, poses a serious challenge to the traditional strategies—namely, lobbying and bargaining—adopted by the President in Washington politics. With the advance of media technologies and political consulting business, Presidents since JFK have gradually applied a marketing strategy to win public support for the Presidency and issues, which is called the "White House political marketing" strategy.To put simply, the political marketing strategy means that the White House applies the methods and tools of business marketing to the governing process. In the business world, profit is the ultimate goal, while in the political market, public opinion is currency. With the evolution of traditional U.S. political environment in the post-Industrial era, the White House political marketing practice has become more frequent and adopted more tools. This trend is gradually replacing the lobbying and bargaining strategies often resorted to in the past, as well as reinforcing competition in the Washington political process.Because Political Marketing studies is a totally new discipline in China, this dissertation aims to address the following questions: what is the essence of political marketing? How is White House political marketing conducted? What factors gave rise to the development of such a strategy? And, what impact does this trend of development have on U.S. presidential politics and the U.S. democracy?Through a systematic exploration into the White House political marketing strategy, the dissertation draws the following conclusions: because the factors that gave rise to the adoption of political marketing strategy still exist, White House political marketing practice will continue to grow, which will not only expand Presidential power, but it will also increase the chance of Presidential re-election success; if no measures are taken to curb this tendency, then Washington politics will be marked by more and more contradiction and conflicts, while the traditional pluralist system of the U.S. will become more like a zero-sum game.The dissertation totals 130 000 characters and is divided into 5 chapters. Chapter One mainly addresses two questions: why do modern Presidents increasingly adopt this strategy? What is the essential difference between this strategy and the two traditional strategies?Chapter Two depicts the history and development of White House public strategy, including the expansion of White House public relations efforts, going-public efforts and the ever-rising role of public polling. This chapter intends to prove that, although the primitive form of the strategy can be traced to the foundation of the U.S., yet it has never become an institutionalized strategy of the White House until the 1960s; only since then, Presidents have begun to use it as a major governing method.Chapter Three addresses how the strategy is used in practice. First, it introduces the White House marketing team, as well as the role of political parties and interest groups in the strategy; next, it provides a model for understanding the strategy, with a focus on the systematic process of the practice; finally, the case of PNTR for China in 2000 is given, in order to help understand the application of the strategy.Chapter Four examines the use of White House political marketing strategy in two cases, the 1993-94 Medicare Reform and the 1996 Federal Budget, respectively. With a comparative analysis of the two cases, this chapter finds out four key variables that cause different results of the strategy, namely, the timeliness of the public strategy, the degree of the application of the strategy, the internal consent among the White House, and the mixed use of all the political strategies that are available to the President.Based on the above analysis, Chapter Five focuses on the impact of the increasing White House political marketing practice upon Presidential politics and the U.S. democracy. By examining the heterogeneity of the powers generated by the marketing strategy and other strategies, this chapter probes into the two different styles of pluralism co-existent in the U.S. In the end, it is concluded that, although Presidents should always keep an eye on the changes of mainstream public opinion, yet, if they are so eagerly reactive to the changes and reliant upon political marketing strategy, U.S. democracy will suffer in the long run.The final part of the dissertation first concludes the whole research, and then comments on the universal trend of many governments to augment the legitimacy of their policies with the tool of public opinion polling.更多还原