【作者】 张榆青；

【导师】 周忠海；

【作者基本信息】 中国政法大学 ， 国际法学， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 出口信贷是一国为支持和扩大本国大型机械设备的出口，加强国际竞争能力，由该国的出口信贷机构通过直接向本国出口商或外国进口商(或其银行)提供利率较低的贷款，或者通过提供担保、保险或利率补贴等鼓励本国商业银行对本国出口商或外国进口商(或其银行)提供中长期贷款，以解决本国出口商资金周转困难，或者满足国外进口商对本国出口商支付货款需要的一种融资方式。随着现代国际经济贸易的发展，出口信贷还成为替代其他贸易保护政策尤其是关税政策，促进本国商品出口和对外投资，实现国家经济政治外交战略的一种政策手段。然而，各国竞相为本国出口商以较低的信贷利率和较长的信贷期限提供贷款的结果是“贸易战”和“信贷战”的爆发，正常的交易环境受到破坏，原来平衡的贸易秩序被打破，和谐的国际社会陷入混乱。出口信贷由促进商品出口和对外投资的融资方式，变成了扭曲世界贸易自由化、加剧世界或地区经济危机的一种措施。为了不至于使各国的出口信贷政策都徒劳无功，也不至于使因恶性竞争而导致推行出口信贷政策的国家两败俱伤，各国被迫走到了谈判桌前，采取了谋求协调彼此的出口信贷政策的国际行动。伯尔尼联盟、OECD、WTO和MIGA便是对各国出口信贷政策进行国际协调的组织形式，在这些国际机构的框架下达成的国际出口信贷统一法规则便是规制各国出口信贷政策的法律武器。在当今经济全球化、贸易自由化以及各国经济联系日益密切的时代背景下，迫切需要加强对国际出口信贷法的研究。国际出口信贷法的调整对象、渊源形式和演进历史，是国际出口信贷法的基本理论问题，是研究国际出口信贷法的前提和基础。国际出口信贷法的调整对象是国际出口信贷关系，这种关系主要是在国家与国家之间、各国官方或半官方出口信贷机构之间以及国家与官方或半官方出口信贷机构之间形成的以出口信贷融资、保险或担保为内容的一种法律关系。国际条约如WTO《反补贴协定》和《农业协定》是国际出口信贷法的重要渊源之一，但国际出口信贷法的渊源目前大多数仍包含在国际惯例或国际习惯之中，如伯尔尼联盟《一般谅解》和OECD《安排》。国际司法判例尤其是WTO争端解决机构的裁决，虽然只能作为国际出口信贷法的一个次要的或辅助性的渊源，但其对国际出口信贷法的形成与发展发挥着十分重要的作用。国际出口信贷法作为国际法的一个部门，是20世纪初资本主义进入垄断阶段以后的产物，是随着各国出口信贷政策的产生而逐渐产生的。其产生和发展大体上经历了20世纪初期的探索、20世纪中后期的发展和世纪之交的革新三个阶段。探索阶段的特点是：仅有伯尔尼联盟从事出口信贷政策的国际协调，且尚未取得实质性的成果。发展阶段的特点是：从事国际出口信贷法研究和统一的国际组织增多，既有伯尔尼联盟亦有OECD，还有WTO和MIGA；统一法的成果丰富多样，渊源上既有国际惯例亦有国际条约，内容上既涉及商品出口亦涉及对外投资。革新阶段的特点是：国际出口信贷法的内容更加丰富和完善，规制出口信贷的统一法向与出口信贷相关的国际反腐败和国际环境保护领域扩展，规制海外投资保险的统一法亦向IT、CUP等新领域拓展；国际出口信贷法体系逐步形成。伯尔尼联盟是对各国出口信贷政策进行国际协调的最早形式。由于伯尔尼联盟规则的保密性，使得伯尔尼联盟的许多规则至今仍不为人们所知晓。但其规则的保密性面纱并没有完全遮掩住伯尔尼联盟规则的真面目，人们仍然可以在保密的伯尔尼联盟规则中挖掘出其中的一些，以供研究这些规则的人们分享。这就是伯尔尼联盟的《1953年协议》、《1961年声明》和《2001年一般谅解》。《1953年协议》主要是根据不同商品的类别，分别确定了出口信贷的最长还款期限。例如，它规定资本货物出口信贷的最长还款期限为5年。《1961年声明》对《1953年协议》进行了修改，规定《1953年协议》关于资本货物出口信贷5年的还款期限仅适用于卖方信贷，而不适用于买方信贷。这暴露了伯尔尼联盟在协调出口信贷政策上的软弱性。《2001年一般谅解》规定了出口信贷的一般纪律、部门协议、报告和信息交流以及通知和匹配程序等内容。该谅解是伯尔尼联盟适应经济全球化趋势，革新其国际出口信贷规则的典型代表。伯尔尼联盟规则正在由国际惯例向国际习惯法演变，正在获取国际法律的地位。伯尔尼联盟规则对各国出口信贷机构的法律拘束力，来源于伯尔尼联盟本身的实践性质、“俱乐部”式的文化特征、非正式的执行机制、透明的通知程序和具有救济作用的匹配措施。伯尔尼联盟“立法团体”的誉词表明，它不仅仅是一个国际贸易协会或提供出口信贷技术知识的国际论坛，而且还是协调各国出口信贷政策的谈判场所、达成国际出口信贷规则的法律框架。OECD是从事出口信贷政策国际协调的第二个组织形式。由于伯尔尼联盟自身的软弱性和其信用保险人之地位，使得其不能在协调中长期出口信贷政策方面发挥有效作用，因而这一重要使命便落在了OECD的身上。OECD所取得的最主要成果，就是《关于官方支持的出口信贷的安排》即“君子协议”。该《安排》不仅借用了伯尔尼联盟规则的基本框架和程序，而且承继了伯尔尼联盟规则中极其重要的技术规则。根据2004年《安排》的最新版本，《安排》是由1个主体协议和8个附件组成的一个一揽子协议。主体协议主要规定了出口信贷的利率、期限、融资比例、保险或担保比例以及本国成分等，重要附件主要规定了船舶、核电站、民用航空器等特殊资本货物的出口信贷纪律。OECD还在与出口信贷相关的国际环境保护和国际反腐败领域取得了两个重要成果，即《环境与官方支持的出口信贷共同发展建议》和《关于贪污和政府支持的出口信贷的行动声明》。这两个文件表明OECD已将法律统一的范围由原来单纯的出口信贷领域扩展到了与出口信贷相关的诸如环境、反腐败等领域。OECD协议原本并不具有法律的拘束力，但因为参加者甚至非参加者广泛的持续信守而事实上具有了法律的拘束力。OECD协议已经具有了类似于国际法律的性质，甚至在某些情况下已经被提升到了真正的国际法律的地位。OECD协议的法律效力源自于其自身渐进的改革进程、独特的运作程序和松散的渊源形式等特性。OECD是目前达成国际出口信贷统一法的主要谈判场所，但OECD是少数西方发达国家的俱乐部，其形成的规则必然是发达国家意志的反映，维护发达国家利益的工具。发展中国家必须努力寻求建立一个与发达国家平等协商的谈判场所，制定一个能够反映并体现发展中国家意志和利益的国际出口信贷统一法。WTO是从事出口信贷政策国际协调的第三个组织形式。出口信贷实为出口补贴之一种。判断一项出口信贷措施是否构成WTO协议中所称的“补贴”有两个标准：信贷提供者是否为政府或者公共机构；信贷接受者是否获得了利益。WTO国际协调的主要成果是《反补贴协定》和《农业协定》。《反补贴协定》就补贴的含义及其类别、反补贴措施程序以及对发展中国家的特殊和差别待遇等问题作了规定。但这些规定对政府或官方提供的出口信贷及其保险或担保计划并没有达成具体的约束纪律和减让措施，这为WTO争端解决机构裁决案件适用OECD《安排》提供了机遇。因为《反补贴协定》附件1“出口补贴例示清单”(k)项第2段规定，如一成员属一官方出口信贷的“国际承诺”的参加方，或如一成员实施相关“国际承诺”的利率条款，那么符合该“国际承诺”的出口信贷做法不得被视为本协定所禁止的出口补贴。“巴西飞机出口融资项目案”和“加拿大民用飞机出口补贴案”已经表明，该项第2段所称的“国际承诺”就是OECD的《安排》，这样就将OECD的《安排》纳入到了WTO的法律体系之中。《农业协定》就农业出口补贴的定义和种类、一般纪律、削减承诺和反规避条款等作了规定，因而其第10条第2款关于农业出口信贷规则有待发展之规定，并不意味着农业出口信贷无规则可循。这已为“美国棉花出口补贴措施案”所证实。WTO国际出口信贷规则的改革在多哈谈判中取得了新成果，各成员方同意偿还期限超过180天的出口信贷，以及与偿还期限等于或小于180天的出口信贷有关但却与即将达成的规则不相符的期限和条件，将在有待议定的终止日期以前取消。WTO统一法的形成使国际出口信贷法进入了通过多边国际条约造法的新阶段，但实践表明通过多边国际条约形成国际出口信贷统一法是相当艰难的，因为发达国家之间以及发达国家与发展中国家之间存在着尖锐的矛盾和斗争。MIGA是从事出口信贷政策国际协调的第四个组织形式。海外投资保险是中长期出口信贷保险中极其重要的一个部分，但它与中长期出口信贷保险又有所不同：中长期出口信贷保险的对象是一般商品，而海外投资保险的对象是特殊商品(资本)。因而，海外投资保险是一种特殊的中长期出口信贷保险。海外投资，尤其是大型项目投资(往往伴随大型成套设备的出口)，周期长，见效慢，往往需要国家的信贷支持。MIGA通过直接承保海外投资者可能面临的各种政治风险的手段，为投资者权益提供事先保障。MIGA虽在适格投保人、适格东道国、适格投资、承保险别等方面具有任何国家的官方出口信贷保险机构难以比拟的优势，但它也有自己的缺陷。这就决定了MIGA并非要与国家的官方出口信贷保险机构竞争，而是要为这些机构提供有益的补充。MIGA成员所具有的“双重身份”，保证了有关的投资争端能够得到有效的解决。MIGA的未来发展强调所谓“多边领地”的发展新战略，即发挥作为一个多边投资保险机构的独特优势，着力开辟其他各类国际投资保险机构无法或难以涉足的担保业务。因而，MIGA追求的不仅仅是市场占有率，而更注重的是自身发展目标的实现以及对其他各类国际投资保险机构的补缺和带动作用，共同促进投资的发展。国际出口信贷法的发展趋势和对中国的启示，是研究国际出口信贷法的落脚点和归宿。国际出口信贷法的基本发展趋势，是作为国际经济法重要分支的国际出口信贷法体系正在逐渐形成。表现为：从事国际出口信贷法研究和统一的国际组织不断增多；国际出口信贷法的渊源形式渐次呈多样性发展；国际出口信贷法的调整范围逐渐向与出口信贷相关的其他领域扩展；国际出口信贷法规则的革新日益向更深层次推进；国际出口信贷法的国际惯例渊源逐渐向国际习惯法演变；由于从事研究和统一国际出口信贷法的国际机构的多样性，使得国际出口信贷法规则之间也不可避免地隐含着冲突。国际出口信贷法的形成与发展对中国具有重要的启示意义。表现为：中国必须尽快制定自己的国内出口信贷法，且应采取专门立法的模式；中国必须加强对OECD《安排》的研究，使国内立法的内容与普遍通行的国际惯例接轨；中国应设法加入OECD的国际出口信贷立法进程，及时反映广大发展中国家的意志和利益；中国应把握住WTO在OECD《安排》的范围内允许提供出口信贷的机遇，调整自己的出口信贷政策，通过提供出口信贷措施促进本国的商品出口和对外投资。更多还原

【Abstract】 Export credit is a kind of financing approach to support the export ofmechanical equipment, export credit agency directly provide lower rate loans tonational exporters or foreign importers(or its bank) or insurance and guarantee orrate subsidies to promote bank’s mid-long term loan for them, aims to solveexporters’ cash flow problems and meet importers’ payment requirements. Withthe development of the international economy and trade nowadays, Theinternational export credit law is also a kind of political mean to take place othertrade protection policies, especially customs duty policy, and to promotedomestic export and achieve the national economic, political and diplomaticstrategies. However, countries provide credit for exporters in lower rate andlonger credit terms, it leads to the trade war and credit war. Normal transactionenvironment is destroyed, the trade order is out of balance, the internationalsociety is in confusion. Export credit is from a fmancing approach to promotecommodity export and foreign investment to a measure of distorting the tradefreedom and prick up the world or regional economic crisis. So countries have tofind ways to harmonize the policy of export credit. The Berne Union, OECD,WTO and MIGA are organizations for it. In background of economic globalation,trade freedom and closed economy relationship between countries, the researchon the international export credit law is necessary.The regulated object, resource form and developing history of internationalexport credit law is the basis theory problems. The international export credit lawis an international law for credit relationships within the international community,and an important branch of the International Economic Law. With its inherentinner connection, the subject, the regulated object, scope and concerned legalnorms of the international export credit law possess features differing from those of the other legal departments. Sources of the international export credit lawinclude international custom or practices, and international treaties. Moreover,given that the treaty law hasn’t formed an integrated system and the practice ofthe international export credit hasn’t fully evolved into the rules of customaryinternational law in the current field of the international export credit law,relevant international judicial precedents are particularly important to thedevelopment of the international export credit law, which starves for beingsupplemented and improved by judicial precedents as well. Therefore,international judicial precedents related to the international export credit are alsoan important auxiliary source for the international export credit law. Theinternational export credit law system is coming into being.The Berne Union is the earliest form to harmonize the export credit policiesamong various countries. Due to the confidentiality, many of the rules of theBerne Union still keep unknown by now. But the veil of confidentiality does nothide the Berne Union regulations entirely, people can still fred some regulationsto share. There are agreement in 1953, statement in 1961 and GeneralUnderstanding in 2001. Agreement in 1953 confirms the length of export credit,provide the five year of repayment terms for capital goods. Statement in 1961amends agreement in 1953, stipulates five years repayment terms for capitalgoods export credit of agreement in 1953 only fits for sellers, not buyers. Thatexposes the shortage of Berne Union for harmonizing the policy of export credit.General Understanding in 2001 includes contents such as general discipline,sector agreements, reporting and exchange of information, matching and so on.The Understanding is a representative for Berne Union to adapt to the trend ofeconomic globalation. The Berne Union regulations tend to evolve intocustomary international law and gain the status of the international law. The forceof the rules of the Berne Union is rooted in the nature of practice of the rules, thecultural feature of the "club" style, the informal enforcement mechanism, thetransparent notice procedure and the matching measures with remedy of theBerne Union. The Berne Union is regard as a lawmaking group, it means theBerne Union is not only a international trade association or a international forum of technic knowledge for export credit, but also a negotiation place forharmonizing the policy of export credit in different countries and manage to lawframe of international export credit regulations.OECD is the second organization form to harmonize the export creditpolicies. The OECD has made great contributions on dealing with affairs of theexport credit and its insurance or guarantee, coordinating the international exportcredit policies of each country, formulating international laws of the export credit,and made lots of innovation in many of these fields. Its international polices andlaws of the export credit are improved continuously: there are general rulesapplicable to the export credit of ordinary products, and specific rules applicableto special products such as the ship, civil aircraft, nuclear power plant, etc. andalso special rules applicable to fields of the international environmentalprotection and anti-corruption, etc. which are closely related to the export credit.The OECD particularly formulated the rules on the international environmentalprotection and anti-corruption, which not only indicates that the OECD has paidattention on some global problems emerged in the process of globalization, butalso demonstrates that the OECD has extended the scope of the internationalexport credit laws and rules from the original simple field of the export credit toother new fields related to the export credit such as problems of the environmentand anti-corruption. Originally, the OECD Agreement has no legal binding force,but the continuously observation by the participants and even non-participants inwide range endows it the legal binding force in fact. The OECD agreement haspossessed some natures similar to those of the international laws. Furthermore, ithas been elevated to the status of a real international law in certain circumstances.The OECD agreement is similar to a legislation form of merchant law-customary international practice, which tends to develop and evolve intocustomary international law. The success of the OECD agreement should beattributed to the characteristics of its gradual innovation process, uniqueoperation procedure and loose sources, and etc. It is exactly because of many ofits own features that provide the OECD Agreement itself with legal force.WTO is the third organization form to harmonize the export credit policies. Enactment of the Countervailing rule by the WTO leads the international exportcredit law into a new stage of making law through multilateral internationaltreaties. The export credit, in fact, is a kind of hidden export subsidy, which isrestricted by the Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCMA). Reached inApril, 12, 1979, the Subsidies and Countervailing Measures stipulates new ruleson the export credit, the export credit guarantee or insurance. The Subsidies andCountervailing Measures deems the export credit interest rates, given by thegovernment or the institutions controlled or authorized by the government, lowerthan its practical fund cost as prohibited export subsidies, but this "prohibition"contains an important exception, i.e. in case the interest rate is in line with theinterest rate level stipulated by the Gentleman Agreement of the OECD, it cannotbe deemed as an export subsidy. The relationship between the SCMA and theOECD Arrangement demonstrates that the international rules are learning andabsorbing from each other. As to whether introducing the Gentleman Agreementof the OECD into the agreement of the WTO, from the proposals on the exportcredit rule in the new round negotiations of each country, when the developingcountries think they agree to introduce the Gentleman Agreement of the OECDinto the agreement of the WTO, they only agree to accept relevant rules of theGentleman Agreement at the establishment of the Marrakesh Agreement, they donot give up the right of amending the text of the WTO agreement. However, whatis the expert panel’s interpretation is when considering the export credit whetherprohibited by the Agreement, not only the interest rate rules of the GentlemanAgreement at the end of the Uruguay Round Negotiation, but also the relevantinterest rate rules of the existing Gentleman Agreement at the time of providingfinancing support should be referred to. This does violate the sovereignty of thedeveloping countries and is not in conformity with the development purpose ofthe Doha Round. Nevertheless, compared with the negotiation power, althoughthe power of the developing countries is growing, the developed countries stilloccupy a dominant position, and therefore, the amended Gentleman Agreementmay still be accepted into the WTO agreement.MIGA is the fourth organization form to harmonize the export credit policies. It is established under the organization of the World Bank and aninternational organization which aim is to promote international investment.Overseas investment, especially the investment of big projects (oftenaccompanied by the export of large scale set equipment) always needs thenational export credit support for its long tem and slow reward. Therefore, theinsurance of overseas investment is a very important part of the mid-and-longterm export credit insurance, but it differs from the general mid-and-long termexport credit insurance. The insurance objective of the former is general goods;the insurance objective of the later is special goods (capital). MIGA is the onlyexisting international institution exclusively targeted on the overseas investmentinsurance, As an international organization, members of the MIGA have "dualidentity". This dual identity is particularly important to the developing countries,which benefit for the settlement of investment disputes. The MIGA mechanismdiffers from any other kind of state-owned insurance mechanism. Compared tothe bilateral system, the MIGA regulations have great differences in serviceobjective, insurance capability, promoting investment etc. The MIGA is aninvestment promotion institution other than a simple investment insuranceinstitution with special emphasis on the promotion effect to the economicdevelopment of the developing countries, which demonstrates its nature ofdevelopment. MIGA system has its unique advantages,The trend of the international export credit law and the revelations forChina is the end result of research on the international export credit law. Thedevelopment trend existing in the international export credit law is: theinternational export credit law system is coming into being. As to the Form, theinternational export credit legal system has begun to appear its early frame. TheBerne Union rules, the Arrangement of the OECD and multilateral guaranteeinstitution treaties have respectively regulated the export credit in the three fieldsof the short-term export credit insurance, mid-and-long term export credit and theoverseas investment insurance. Although this form is immature, yet itsdevelopment is in good trend; As to the content, the international export creditlaw is constantly expanding its areas from the traditional fields of the export credit financing, guarantee and insurance to the new fields of the environmentalprotection, anti-corruption etc. which related to the export credit; As to therelationship between rules, the international export credit laws are absorbing andtransforming from each other. No matter are the export credit rules of the BerneUnion absorbed by the OECD or are the export credit rules of the OECTborrowed by the WTO, we can see the mutual absorption and transformationbetween international export credit laws. Moreover, countries have transformedthe OECD Arrangement into their domestic laws one after another, whichdemonstrates the rules of the international laws are absorbed by and transformedinto the rules of the domestic laws; As to the nature, the international exportcredit law is transforming from soft law into hard law. The revelations for Chinaare as follows: the construction of the Chinese export credit system. Based on thelegislation form: the form of independent legislation should be adopted, and theExport-import Bank Law of China and the Export Credit Insurance Law shouldbe enacted respectively; based on the specific contents of the legislation, severalproblems should be emphasized as followed: to clarify the legal attribute or thenature of the export credit institutions of China; to greatly promote nationalcorporations to make direct overseas investment; to push the export of new andhi-tech products; to establish export financing guarantee for small andmiddle-sized business; to increase the support for the import financing, and topromote commodity export and foreign investment through export credit.更多还原