【作者】 贾霄锋；

【导师】 王希隆；

【作者基本信息】 兰州大学 ， 中国少数民族史， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 土司制度作为国家推行于民族地区的民族自治制度，并不是一朝一夕所致，而是有一个历史的发展过程。藏区土司制度形成一方面与中央王朝传统治边的政策有关外，另一方面与吐蕃王朝解体后，吐蕃在藏区的戎边大将，割据一方，地方政治的独立化有密切关系。各地封建领主在发展经济、军事势力的同时，均十分重视扶持佛教、利用佛教来巩固自己的权力。公元十一至十二世纪，西藏佛教各教派相继建立，而且都和某个有势力的家族结合起来，逐步形成政、教结合的局面。藏区的政治力量通过不断的扩张、兼并与组合，在公元14世纪蒙古入据吐蕃前，已形成十几个较大的政教势力。为了治理这个地域广袤，各地因历史、地理发展差异等原因，社会、文化的发展也不完全一致的藏区，中央政府自元代以来在除了逐渐采取多封众建、政教合一的僧纲制度；文武相卫、土流参治的卫所制度之外，主要的一项制度就是因俗而治的土司制度。本文主要以元代以来中央政府对藏区的施政为背景，通过中央政府对藏区逐渐推行土司制度，从土司制度的内涵和外延深入剖析藏区土司及藏区土司制度的历史渊源和藏区土司制度的基本内容，认为藏区土司制度是中央政府根据藏区的实际情况推行的，其本质与内涵是传统治边政治“因俗而治”和“天下一统”思想在封建时代的终极体现，且藏区土司始终处于依附与扩张这种复杂多变的政治环境中。在对藏区土司制度的内涵与本质分析研究中，分析了土司制度在西南部和中南部少数民族地区形成于宋代，在藏区正式形成于明代，因为土司制度形成的标志就是其职官名称，而土司制的职官名称包括文职和武职，但他们并非同时形成，在宋代文职土司就已形成，明代才正式形成了武职土司。从总体考察，土司制度正式形成于明代。通过考证研究，根据土司家族(部落)粗略统计，藏区各族土司总计849家，其中藏族土司795家，其他各族土司54家。论文不但从职官制度、承袭制度、奖惩制度、朝贡制度、赋役制度、军事制度、教育制度等方面深入细致的研究了藏区土司制度整体性和个体化特点，而且也分析了藏区土司地区的社会经济形态及土司政治对藏区少数民族的文化变迁的影响，尤其是中央政府根据“土流参治”的行政建制与根据“政治神化”准则构建了藏区的集权统治网络，并且成为藏区土司政治体制构造的一种基本原则与行政模式。在此基础上，论文通过藏区土司复杂多变的政治环境，分析了藏区土司分别与中央政府、寺院的政治关系，认为藏区土司政治的最大特点就是土司为了生存，不时依附于某个政治力量，以期乘机扩张自己的势力，尤其是和中央政府之间的政治关系更为复杂，除了实力弱小的土司基本上能效忠于朝廷而外，势力较大或地处偏远的土司们，随着中央政府力量的消长而消长：当中央政府力量强大时，土司们基本上能“瑾守王命”，当中央政府力量弱小或无暇顾及时，便结合周边某些土司或寺院乘机扩大自己的势力。最后，随着社会的发展，中央政府通过改土归流，使藏区土司制度逐渐退出历史舞台。藏区改土归流主要集中在清朝。明代藏区除了对四川龙州土司进行了大规模改土归流之外，基本上没有大规模的改土归流，只是在非藏区的西南地区进行。民国虽然也有，但也只是清代藏区改流的尾声。为了进一步揭示藏区土司制度的内涵和外延，论文通过余论中的个案研究和比较研究，总结了藏区土司独特的个体化形态和地域化形态，揭示了藏区土司制度之间以及与非藏区土司制度之间存在的差异，并探究产生这种差异的原因，揭示其内在的规律性，也了解到统治者具体问题具体对待的政治态度以及自元代以来中央王朝在藏区推行土司制度的成功经验和失败教训，对于我国现行的民族政策和宗教政策提供的历史借鉴。更多还原

【Abstract】 The Tusi system , a national autonomous system that was carried out by the country in regions inhabited by ethnic groups was not formed overnight, but had a historical development. In Tibetan-inhabited area, the formation of Tusi system was not only associated with the central authority’s policy of administering the border areas, but also closely connected with the high-ranking officers’ setting up the separatist regimes and establishing the political independence. In the process of developing economy and military strength, the feudal lords paid much attention to Buddhism so that they could consolidate their own strengths. From 11^th A.D to 12^th A.D, Xizang Buddhism consecutively established different sects. With the combination between those sects and some influential families, politics and religion in Xizang combined with each other. After ceaseless dilation, merger and combination, before Mon-Go nationality entered into the lands of Tibetan regime, the Tibetan-inhabited area had formed more than ten political and religious powers. In order to govern this region which had a wide stretch of land and unbalanced development in society and culture because of different histories and geographies, the central government had adopted many different systems since Ming Dynasty, such as the Senggang system that was formed by unifying politics and the religion; the Weisuo system that had the feature of jointly administration of civil and military and so on. Among them, the main system was the Tusi system which was formed according to its own regional customs.In the main body of this thesis, by regarding the central government’s administration to the Tibetan-inhabited area from Yuan Dynasty to now as the background, we learned much about the development of the Tusi system in Ming and Qing Dynasty. We also learned something about the fundamental contents and historical origins of Tusi system in Tibetan-inhabited area by analyzing its connotation and extension. We found that the central government carried out Tusi system according to the reality of Tibetan-inhabited area and the essence and connotation of Tusi system embodied the traditional political thought of governing the border areas in the feudal times, that is "control according to its own customs","unify the world".The Tusi system in the Tibetan-inhabited area always hanged about or expanded from it.By studying the connotation and nature of Tusi system, we found that in the southwest and middle southern of regions inhabited by ethnic groups, it was formed in Song Dynasty, but in Tibetan-inhabited area, it formed formally in Ming Dynasty. That was because that the name of the official position is the marks of the formation of Tusi system. The official position of the Tusi system included civilian post and military post and they didn’t form at the same time. The civilian post formed in Song Dynasty, but the military post only formed in Ming Dynasty. The Tusi system was formed in Ming Dynasty by Overall.According to textual research and the Tusi family’s rough counting, we found that there were 849 various nations of Tusi in Tibetan-inhabited area. Among them, 795 were Tibetans and 54 belonged to other nationalities. The thesis not only thoroughly and carefully studied the global and individual feature of Tusi system in Tibetan-inhabited area from different aspects including official position system, inheriting system, system of rewards and penalties, paying tribute system, taxes and corvee system, military affairs system, educational system and so on, but also analyzed the influence of social and economical forms in Tibetan-inhabited area and Tusi politics to the cultural changes of the Tibetan minorities, especially the centralized administration networks which was constructed by the central government according to "Tu-liu-can-zhi" and "politics apotheosis " and became the basic principal and administration model to construct Tusi system. On this basis, by studying the complex and volatile political environment, the thesis analyzed the political relations among Tusi, central government and the temples. We think the main feature of Tusi politics was that in order to survive and expand their powers, Tusi always attached themselves to some political powers and they had complex relations with central government. The Tusi who had weak power always devoted themselves to the imperial government, but the Tusi who was more powerful or lived in remote areas usually changed their attitudes with the changing of the central government’s power. When the central government’s strength was powerful, they could always "obey the emperor’s order ". But when the central government’s power was too weak or had no time to pay regard to them, they would expand their own power by uniting with some peripheral Tusi or temples. In the end, with the development of the society, the central government made Tusi system in Tibetan-inhabited area disappear from the history through Gai-tu-gui-liu which was mainly happened in Qing Dynasty. In Ming Dynasty,besides the large-scale Gai-tu-gui-liu in LongZhou, SiChuan province and in the northwest part of China, there had no other large-scale Gai-tu-gui-liu. Although it also happened in Republic, it was only the end of the Gai-tu-gui-liu in Qing Dynasty.In order to reveal Tusi system in Tibetan-inhabited area further, the thesis summed up the unique individual and regional forms of Tusi system in Tibetan-inhabited area by using case study and comparison. It also revealed the difference in Tusi system between Tibetan-inhabited area and no-Tibetan-inhabited area and its clauses. By probing into the rules in Tusi system, we also learned the ruler’s different political attitudes towards different problems and the useful experience or lessons in the process of the central imperial dynasty’s carrying out its Tusi system since Yuan Dynasty. All those provides us some referential experience to work out national and religious policy.更多还原