“作新民”、“唤起民众”

【作者】 杨才林；

【导师】 梁景和；

【作者基本信息】 首都师范大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 百年中国近代史,救亡图存是首要问题。变革教育,培养“新民”是挽救危亡的要略,国人认识到此并付诸实践,可谓抓住了国家的命根。清末以来,维新派、革命派的宣传和启蒙大多在知识界、政界发生效力,普通国民知觉甚少。民国时期,在诸多教育界人士的发起和推动下,在政府的多方支持中,旨在面向广大国民的社会教育持续进行了三十多年。民国社会教育史的研究是近十年来一个学术成长点,以往论述罕有概观,可钻研的空间很大。本文力图爬梳史料,勾要提玄,搜求各类事业的内在关联,提炼宗旨,概括阶段特征,做出总体评价。本文研究的是狭义的社会教育,即民国时期家庭教育、普通学校教育以外的,有计划、有目的、有组织的教育活动。共产党的社会教育和日伪政权的社会教育不在本文研究之列。笔者认为,通俗教育、平民教育皆属社会教育,民众教育与社会教育名异实同。社会教育是就施教的范围而言,民众教育是就施教的对象而言,是一个命题的两方面,而社会教育的名称较为适宜,因为它与家庭教育、学校教育构成了一个完整的教育序列。本文出现的通俗教育、平民教育、民众教育等概念,得以统合为社会教育的范畴,不是依赖抽象的逻辑规定,而主要是用问题去统摄。这个问题就是“新民”的培养问题。第一章论述社会教育从清末继续推进到民国的根由。透过纷繁复杂的历史现象,民国社会教育的宗旨可以概括为“作新民”与“唤起民众”,这也是社会教育从清末继续推进到民国的根由。民国初期,晏阳发起平民教育运动,以“作新民”为宗旨,知识力、生产力、健康力、团结力四力兼备谓之“新民”。“唤起民众”的口号出自孙中山《遗嘱》,晏阳初说,平教会所努力的就是孙中山先生提倡的“唤起民众”的工作,国民党中央训练部也解释民众教育即是“唤起民众”。从严复的“鼓民力、开民智、新民德”论,到梁启超的“新民说”,再到陈独秀的“救国新民”主张,进而晏阳初“作新民”和国民党“唤起民众”的口号,其培养新国民的思想一脉贯通。新式学校教育有很多成绩,同时不可否认产生了不良结果,主要表现有三:新式学制、教学内容和教学方法模仿外国,由此造成事事不如人的民族自卑心理;学校教育缺乏中国化,所教所学与社会需要脱节;普及教育远远不够。民国所需要的教育,尤其是面向广大国民的社会教育,除了为民众自身解放外,更需要昂扬国民的民族意识,激发起民族自觉,使广大国民都能起而反对帝国主义,争取民族独立。“作新民”的口号更多体现了社会教育的价值理性,而“唤起民众”的口号则更多体现了社会教育的工具理性。两者都弥补了家庭教育、学校教育的不足,其同一性则是变革教育、培养新民,最终完成救亡图存的使命。这正是本文的逻辑起点。第二章论述民国社会教育发展进程。通过对民国学者社会教育分期的总体纵向考察,得出两点依据:一是根据政权更迭,二是根据社会教育的突出特征。据此,笔者将民国社会教育史大略分为四期:1912-1918年,社会教育的确定时期,因为此期特别注重通俗教育的推行,也称通俗教育运动时期。1919-1927年,社会教育的发展时期,因为此期平民教育盛行,也称平民教育运动时期。1928-1937年,社会教育的全面扩张时期,因为此期民众教育的提法盖过社会教育,也称民众教育运动时期。1938-1949年,因为此期处于全面抗战继而全面内战,所以称战时社会教育。对于中间两个个时期社会教育的内容,以往论著叙述较多,笔者重在概括其阶段特征。对于通俗教育和战时社会教育,以往论著涉及极少,笔者尤为着力,进行了详细论证。第三章论述民国社会教育行政。社会教育行政包括制度的建设、机构的设立、人员的培养、经费的筹措划拨。对于前两个方面,以往论述较多。后两个方面尽管材料稀少,笔者作了简要梳理。第四章论述民国社会教育设施。民国社会教育实施机关可分学校式和社会式两种,属于学校式的社教机关与普通学校的设置不可相提并论,在教育对象、教材、课程、上课时间、目标诸方面多有不同。属于社会式的社教机关,如各类场馆等。除此之外,1940年代各级学校也成为办理社会教育的地方。其中,民众教育馆是综合的施教机关,民众学校、图书馆、博物馆为单一的施教机构,设置遍及全国。科学馆、礼乐馆的设置虽属个别,但具有特殊性和极大的象征意义。所以笔者择取以上六类设施集中论述,分析了以往论著不曾涉及的一些问题。其中博物馆、科学馆、礼乐馆三项,以往论著中未见。第五章论述民国主要社会教育事业。民初社会教育以通俗演讲最为突出,平民教育运动初期以识字教育为中心,后期实施四大教育,即文艺教育、卫生教育、生计教育、公民教育。南京国民政府时期的社会教育内容增多,1931年教育部关于全国社会教育设施概况报告中列举三大类58项,几乎囊括普通学校教育外的一切教育活动。笔者主要择取持续时间长、影响范围广、以往论著很少论及的通俗演讲、识字教育、通俗读物、生计教育、社会体育、电化教育六项事业进行了论述。第六章分析民国社会教育的演进特点、成效、弊病及其制约因素。民国社会教育的演进具有五个方面的特点:由观览施教而入于分区实验、由农余补习而入于乡村建设、由补助的附属机关而入于正式的学制系统、由单纯的识字教育而入于全民的救国教育、社会教育学术化和组织化。民国时期的社会教育思想给后世留下了一笔宝贵的精神遗产,图书馆、博物馆、科学馆等设施为后世继续沿用,有关规程制度也是后来社会教育或成人教育的张本。成绩并非斐然,然决不能谓之无用。不能否认社会教育有若干收获和成就,但也不能不看到它曾遭遇了若干内在的和外在的困难和阻碍。民国社会教育理论的提出和实施,本在纠正学校教育之弊,但主观愿望与客观效果存在差距,反生其弊,主要表现为:社会教育理论尚未系统化;社会教育事业“全面开花”;集中在城市,忽视乡村;实施方法多有不当。成效不彰,为国人所诟病,主要制约因素有三:社会经济方面,民国经济困难,财政吃紧,民众忙于生计,无暇受教。社会政治方面,民众与政府隔阂很深,社会教育若不借助政权就无力推广。社会心理方面,教育界多数人士囿于教育即学校的偏见,对于社会教育不独鲜见积极赞助,甚且消极地施以诽谤;社会教育人员残留士大夫意识,不屑与民众为伍;民众对社会教育多持怀疑、顾虑和敷衍心理,并未自动的求教育;社会教育是出于教育家的满腔热忱和国家的政策所需,并不是应着民众的要求,乃是施教者为主动,民众为被动。结语得出四点史识。从臣民到新民、公民,反映了民国时期社会教育的高端目标;民本观、民力观是深藏在社会教育运动中的思想基础;民国社会教育发展历程的重心在于“挽救民族危亡”,并未以”民众自身解放”为本位;民国社会教育属于改良范畴,但与革命一样,构成历史合力,同样促进了社会发展。更多还原

【Abstract】 In the Chinese modern history, saving the nation from extinction was an initial and crux problem. Reforming education and training "new people" was the basic tactic. The people realized this and put it into practice, thus grasping tightly the foundation of the nation. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the propaganda and enlightenment from the reformists and the revolutionaries took effects mostly in the educational and political circles, but few common people were aware of it. In the Republic of China, with the push from the intelligentsia and personages as well as with the government supports in many ways, the social education aimed at educating large citizens carried on for more than 30 years continuously.The research of the social education history of the Republic of China in the last decade is an academic growth point. The pity is that researchers in the past just made a sketch of the history of this period, leaving a big research space to explore. The thesis focuses on the study of the aims, inner connections and characteristics of the social education in the Republic of China from a new and overall perspective. And the writer attempts to give his own opinions and comments. What this thesis studies is the social education in a narrow sense, namely the organized education activity with clear plans and purposes except home education and the common school education. The social education of the Chinese Communist Party and the social education of the puppet regime under Japan aren’t in the scope of this thesis. The writer thinks the popular education and the civilian education all belong to social education. The difference between Demos education and the social education is just the both sides of the same academic proposition. Social education emphasizes its scope of teaching; demos education emphasizes its objects of teaching. But the name of the social education is more suitable because it constituted a complete education sequence with home education and school education. The concept of the popular education, the civilian education, demos education in this thesis can be all integrated in the category of the social education. It isn’t the logic provision that depends on abstraction, but depends mainly on one problem. The problem is bringing up "new people".Chapter 1 discusses the basic causes of social education that continued to the Republic of China from the late Qing Dynasty. Through the numerous and complicated history phenomena, the aim of the Republic of China social education can be generalized for "making new people" and "arousing new people". It is also the basic cause that the social education were pushed forward from the late Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China. In the early of the Republic of China, Yan-Yangchu started the civilian education, taking the "making new people" as an aim. "The new people" refer to people with 4 forces—knowledge, productivity, health and solidarity. The slogan of "arousing new people" came from "The Will and Testament" by SunYat-sen. Yan-Yangchu said what they worked hard was the work of "arousing new people" that Mr. Sun Yat-sen promoted. Kuomintang Central Training Department also explained that demos education was "arousing people". From the standpoints of "encourage people’s force, increase people’s knowledge, improve the people’s virtuous" of Yan-fu to the "new people theory" of Liang-Qichao, and the opinion of "saving the country and making new people" of Chen-Duxiu, then the slogan of "making new people" of Yan-Yangchu and "arousing people" of Kuomintang. What they have in common is the spirit of bringing up new citizens. The modern style school education contained many good results, but it also produced some bad results in the meantime. The modern style educational system, content of the courses and the teaching methods were foreign, resulting in the inferiority complex of the whole nation. And the school education lacked of Chinese features. Teaching became disjointed with society and the universal education was not enough. The education of this period undertook the glorious and historic mission. It was not only to arouse the people to fight against imperialism and for independence but also awaken the consciousness of self-liberation. The slogan "making new people" mainly reflected the valuable rational of the social education, while "arousing people" reflected mainly the tool rational of the social education. This is exactly the logical starting point of this thesis.Chapter 2 discusses the progress of the republic social education development. By analyzing the different periods divided by scholars about the Republic of China in a chronological way. The writer gets two aspects of basis: first is the successive changing of the political power; second is the outstanding characteristics of the social education. On the grounds of the above, the writer divides the republic social education history briefly into four periods: (1) the popular education period: From 1912 to 1918, the social education was really established. This period paid much attention to popular education. (2) the civilian education period: Froml919 tol927, the development of the social education was widely accepted and developed. (3) the demos education period: From 1928 tol937, the social education was extended completely, covering all society. (4) the wartime social education: From 1938 to 1949, this period was placed in the Anti-Japanese War and later the Civil War. For the contents of the second and third periods social education, it is talked about more by scholars, while the popular education and the wartime social education which were rarely talked about. Therefore the writer emphasizes to generalize some details.Chapter 3 discusses the social education administration of the Republic of China. The social education administration includes the establishment of the institutions and rules, the personnel’s training and the educational funds. For the first two aspects, some former treatises discussed a lot. However materials are rarely seen about the latter. That is what the writer analyzes briefly.Chapter 4 discusses the republic social education facilities. The facilities can be divided into two kinds. One is of the school type and the other is of the social type. The facility that belongs to the school type can’t be placed on a par with that of the common school. There were differences in the aspects of educating objects, teaching materials, courses and class time and various targets. The facility that belongs to the social type includes all kinds of gyms and museums. In addition, the all-level schools also became the place that carried out social education in the 1940’s. Among them, the people’s educating institution was a comprehensive organization, while schools, libraries, museums were single-teaching organization established all over the country. Although a few science museums, the courtesy and music schools were set up, they have special and tremendous symbolic significance. So the writer chooses the above six types of facilities to discuss intensively and analyzes the related information to talk about some problems that has never been involved before in former studies such as museums, science museums, courtesy and music schools.Chapter 5 discusses the main social education business in the Republic of China. In the early Republic of China, popular lecture was outstanding. The civilian education took learning words education as center in the early years, later turning to carry out four kinds of education, namely literature education, hygiene education, livelihood education, citizen education. In Nanking government period, the social education contents increased. The Ministry of Education enumerated three major types covering 58 items in the report of the national social education facilities in 1931, almost including the whole education activity besides the common school education. The writer mainly chooses the six businesses to analyze which are the popular lecture, the learning words education, the popular literature, the livelihood education, the social athletics, the education with electrical audio-visual aids. The six education businesses lasted a long time and influenced society widely although former researchers seldom referred to them.Chapter 6 analyzes the characteristics, results, bad practices and its restricting factors of the social education evolution in the Republic of China. The evolution had five characteristics: from the demonstration teaching into the experimenting teaching in some areas; from taking lessons in the agricultural spare time into the countryside construction; from the supplementary organization with subsidy into the formal educational system; from pure learning words education into the whole national saving country education and the academic and systemizing social education. The social education thoughts of the Republic of China offered much precious spirit inheritance for future generations. The facilities such as libraries, museums, science museums etc. were used by the future generations. And the relevant rules were also the basis of the social education or adult education afterwards. The results weren’t excellent at all. However, we would never call it futility. We can’t deny the social education achievements they made. Meanwhile, they did meet with lots of inside and outside difficulties and obstacles. Putting forward and implementing the social education was originally to rectify some shortcomings of the school education, but there is a long between subjective wishes and objective results. So it resulted in the following problems. The social education theories hadn’t yet been systematized. The social education facilities and businesses concentrated in cities but neglected villages unlike the so-called "overall bloom". And the teaching methods were not appropriate. The main reasons lie in 3 aspects. First, in the social economic aspect, the republic economy was undeveloped and the public finance became difficult. People occupied in earning a living with no time to accept education. Second, in the social political aspect, there were many misunderstandings and gaps between the people and the government. If the social education did not ask for help from the political power, it had no possibility to expand. Third, in the social mental aspect, many educational circles personages convinced the prejudice that education was only the school education. They didn’t support but even calumniated the social education. On one hand, some personnel of the social education looked down upon the common people. On the other hand, the common people hold much doubt for social education, they did not ask for education automatically. As a result, the social education was not to meet the demand of the common people but only to satisfy the full enthusiasm of the educators and the policy of the nation. Thus, teaching was active, but the common people who received education were very passive.The conclusion can be drawn like this: (1) The process from the subjects of a ruler to new people and citizens reflects the high level target of the republic social education.(2) Regarding People as the foundation of the nation was the central thought that was embedded in the social education .(3) The emphasis of the republic social education was to "saving the nation from extinction" instead of "people self-liberation".(4)The republic social education belongs to the reform, but it as well as the revolution equally promotes the society development as historic joint forces.更多还原