学与政

【作者】 王刚；

【导师】 谢维扬；

【作者基本信息】 华东师范大学 ， 中国古代史， 2004， 博士

【摘要】 就中国帝制时代而言，汉代是知识与政治的发展奠基期，在历史演进中开启了知识与政治的新样式，对后世的政治文化带来了深远的影响。 秦统一后，残暴的文化政策与士人目标发生了严重的冲突，导致了“焚书坑儒”的惨剧。它要断绝诗书的传授系统，使整个社会笼罩在严刑酷法之下。这样就带来了两个后果，一是使得后来的文化建设遭遇到了困难，今古文等问题皆与书籍文本的毁灭有关，为后世的知识争论以及相关的政治斗争埋下了伏笔。二是在严厉的政治压制下，社会各阶层的界限在逐渐消弭，知识分子、旧贵族等与底层平民一起坚决投入了反秦斗争。而这种阶层间的界限消弭相当程度上催生了“布衣将相之局”，使得刘邦集团在风云际会中建立了汉家天下。 汉王朝建立后，在对秦的政治文化反思中带来了如下的后果，一是对于文化开始了重视，学术的向前发展使得“经学时代”最终到来，对政治文化的发展产生了巨大的影响。二是在政治传统上对于“周道”给予了高度重视，虽然汉承秦制，但在精神气质上汉家王朝更推崇的却是周，这就与现实政治发生了冲突，既调整出了汉家“霸王道杂之”的政治特色，也为后来的政治改制埋下了伏笔。三是对于秦文吏的知识改造成为了必然，在这一过程中，不仅士大夫阶层越来越居为官吏主流，选官制度越来越趋向知识标准，文吏的知识结构也由此得到了极大提高，儒生与文吏的既斗争又最终合流，形成了帝制时代的官吏特色。四是对于政治的理论反思，使得对于道统、法统、德政、法政等问题开始了思考，不同于秦王朝仅着眼于政治的实际功用考虑，汉家政府已经开始对帝制时代下，政治的价值层面进行了深刻思考，这种思路极大影响了后世政治，也对知识发展起到了独特的拉动作用。 在汉代知识与政治互动关系问题上，就具体的历史进程而言，在汉初，一方面文化从秦反知识的政策中得到了解放，有了发展的空间；另一方面，知识的大发展又因汉初政治一度偏向于厚重少文的“黄老”，讲求清静无为，从而被闲置了数十年。 但是，儒学毕竟更适应知识与政治的发展，随着中央集权的加强，儒学替代黄老，乃至“独尊儒术”的推出，成了势所必然。但与此同时，知识也被加上了政治的枷锁，影响了此后整个社会的性格与面貌。 在这一过程中尤为值得我们注意的是士人与专制政治的关系。随着中央对地方王国控制的加强，加之援引士人进入内朝，诸侯国的宾客繁盛局面，以及丞相选士等政治习惯被打破，士人的政治空间完全被皇权所掌控。质言之，中央集权的政治体制为知识及士人划定了范围，知识分子的政治活动必须在体制内进行，一旦可能成为异己力量，就会遭到摧灭。从这个意义上看，独尊儒术是一种划定知识标准基础上的国家养士行为，它既使得知识发展有了保障，也使得知识独立发展的空间越来越狭窄，在知识解释权日益系于政治的状况下，士人与政治的关系空前密切，士人群体开始官方化或准官方化了。 在政治影响知识的同时，知识也极大地影响了汉代政治，最主要的表现就是经学与政治的关系。一方面是学术被官方化，“独尊儒术”宣告了在政治推动下学术整合的最后完成，从而奠定了中国古代的思想主流。而博士、太学制度的创设，则在帝制政治下，为知识人转为政治人找到了最佳桥梁，学术不仅取得了与军功、事功一样的任官资质，随着经学及儒学的发展，以“学”为官更是成了最具正当性的理由。另一方面，知识对于政治的影响也甚深至巨，统治者对于道统、政统的讲求，政治对于历史文化的依托，具体到汉王朝的政治发展中，以经术决事，进行春秋决狱，依凭经学知识进行政治设计，乃至因天人灾异推出和调整各项政策，无不有知识力量在背后推引、鼓荡。 武帝时期是汉代的重要转型期。当时以明堂之议拉开了尊儒改制的序幕，明于名物制度的申公被由鲁地征召到京师。但是，申公笃实的学风与武帝要求兴造的政治性格不相符合，申公一派被闲置，使得以董仲舒为代表的另一派得以兴起。通过贤良对策，董仲舒以《公羊春秋》为核心，提出了一系列符合大一统政治的理念，经过他的改造，儒学援引阴阳及其他各种思想因素，开始构筑出帝制时代政治需要的学说。在原始儒学转向汉新儒学的过程中，既使得独尊儒术得以正式实现，也使得来自齐地的《公羊春秋》在政治生活中取得了领导地位，从而构筑出了齐、鲁学之争。 具“守文”立场官员围绕在好《谷梁春秋》的卫太子旁边，以鲁学为号召，在朝廷中与齐学形成了针锋相对的两大派。在昭帝时期，围绕着嗣君的正统性问题，代表鲁学和齐学的谷梁与公羊派更是持截然不同的立场，学理论争后面所反映的是政治斗争。宣帝即位后，为消饵这种差异，直追武帝正统，从而绕过了昭帝与卫太子合法性问题，加之对卫太子好《谷梁春秋》的重视，以及晚年正式回归守文立场，最终在石渠阁会议上确立了《谷梁》的官学地位。这种后果既带动了经学的争论与合流，也为元、成以来改制之风大兴揭开了实质性的序幕。 元、成以来一改汉家“霸王道杂之”的政治作风，开始纯用儒术，奉天法古逐渐成为汹涌的政治潮流。在这一进程中儒生起到了重要的推引作用更多还原

【Abstract】 At Imperialism age of china ,there was develepment and foundation time about knowledge and politics in Han (汉) dynasty ,it open new mode about knowledge vs politics ,and brought out far-reaching influence to aftertime politics culture.After Ch’in( 秦) consolidated china, it’s culture policy arisesed severe conflict to knowledgeable person, conducing "burning books and burying scholars" ("焚书坑儒") . it’s purpose was to cut off classical knowledge impart system , and dominating society by cruel torture and law. It brought two aftereffects, firstly, it caused difficulty to culture construct; secondly, the political suppress made the distinction to put an end among the social ranks and the "commons turning into generals and ministers" (布衣将相之局) midwifery. As a result, Liu-bang (刘邦) group constituted Han-dynasty.纠正Foundation of Han-dynasty brought out some aftermaths rectifying at Ch’in politics culture. The first, the Han government began to attach importance to the culture ,which cause "the classics study age" ("经学时代" )to advent, and brought about great influence to the development of politics culture, secondly, although "Han inheritting Ch’in system"(汉承秦制), it more canonized Chou (周)dynasty spirit, namely "Chou Dao"( "周道" ).it was collided with fact politics, As a result, it not only adjusted "the Pa Dao and Wang Dao mixed "( "霸王道杂之" Characteristic politics, but also covered up the foreshadowing to subsequent politics stryppend-down. Thirdly, it was necessity for the Han government to change the Ch’in office-bearers knowledge system. In the course, not only the scholar-bureaucrat more and more became the mainstream placeman, choosing officers more and more attached importance to knowledge, But also the office-bearers’ knowledge structure gained advance, the contend and concourse the Confucian literati with office-bearers molded bureaucracy feature in the Chinese imperialism age. Fourthly, the Han government start to thought of Dao-tong(道统), Fa-tong(法统), De-zheng(德政) Fa-zheng(法 政) issues .Other than the Ch’in dynasty , which only took into account political efficacy, the Han government also profoundly consider political value, which greatly affect aftertime politics, and rose unique promotional function to the development of knowledge.In early time in Han dynasty , on the one hand, culture was unbound from Ch’in policy; on the other hand, because government was partial to Huang-lao teaching, which requested wu-wei(无为), the great development of knowledge was left unused a few decades.But Confucian more suit for the development of knowledge and politics than Huang-lao school, therefore, it is necessity of the emergence of "Only honour Confucianism "( "独尊儒术" ) Simultaneously, knowledge was shackled by politics, which work on whole Imperialism age of china.In the process, what deserves our attention is scholars’ relation with caesarism. Along with the reinforce of the centrality controlling kingdom in the district, additionally invoking scholars to enter Nei-chao(内朝), the status was break, that the politics guests’ prosperous complexion and political custom of the prime minister choosing official, and then, scholars’ political interspace was entirely controlled by imperial sovereignty(皇权).In a word, centralized political system confined knowledge and scholars. The scholars political action must be in system, once was likely to become dissident, who would be destroyed. From the meaning, "Only honour Confucianism " isaction of government fostering intellectual, based on ordering knowledge standard. It guaranteed development of knowledge , and also made the interspace independent development more and more straitness. Scholars’ connection with politics was so osculation, knowledgemen began to be official or next to be official.When politics influenced knowledge, knowledge also greatly influenced politics in Han dynasty, the primary exhibition was the relation while the classics vs the politics. On the one hand , learning was become official kind, "Only honour Confucianism "declared fina更多还原