【作者】 贺方刚；

【导师】 谢文郁；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 宗教哲学， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 康德哲学的理性主义之特点恐怕是治康德学的人基本上都接受的,康德哲学中对经验论和唯理论所做出的调和与折衷也是被学界所广泛认可的。除此之外,康德哲学中的情感因素,一般说来,大部分人都认为会集中体现在康德的美学思想中,尤其是康德早期著作《对美感和崇高感的观察》以及《判断力批判》有关审美的判断里面。基于上述观点,当我们面对康德的宗教哲学时,往往也会以理性主义的态度对待之,尤其是在康德提出理性宗教观后,更会使人觉得康德的宗教哲学是其以理性的方法对基督教做出的“裁剪”,康德自己以理性的态度对《圣经》的解读也表明了这一点。尽管如此,我们仍可以从“情感”的角度来进入康德的哲学思想,此处的情感不仅仅是审美的情感,还包括康德从小就浸染于其中的带有宗教氛围的情感,但我们想特别指出的是,康德道德哲学中的道德情感也与此有密切联系(康德是从物自体的角度处理道德情感的,详见本论文第三章第五节),康德对宗教情感的理解是奠基于路德宗宗教思想的基础之上的,这里面就有一个从奥古斯丁到路德宗的思想传承问题。所以从情感的角度来理解康德哲学就必须回溯这一思想史的发展脉络。本论文的研究主线是从解读奥古斯丁、路德关于信任情感与理性之间的关系入手,进而展示此二者之间的张力在康德哲学,尤其是宗教哲学中的作用。本论文的研究目的是揭示康德哲学中的情感因素,或者说以康德哲学中情感与理性之对立所造成的张力来推动对康德哲学的解读。在这一过程中,梳理康德之前的思想家对这一问题的关注尤为重要,本论文重点处理了奥古斯丁和路德对情感和理性之间所造成的张力之论述,这就是第一章的内容,主要包括奥古斯丁恩典观的认识论困境、路德的“双重权威”问题,以及由此所导致的康德恩典观的逻辑盲点。本论文的第二章主要是展示康德宗教哲学中的内在张力,它们主要表现在三个方面：人自身(现象与本体)的分裂之张力、人的有限感性和无限理性之张力、人实现至善的自助与神佑之张力,造成这些张力的根本原因在于人一方面是理性的,有诸如康德所说的知性、狭义的理性及不同的判断力等理性能力,但同时人在另一方面又是感性的。如何调和这些张力是康德在《判断力批判》一书中重点要做的工作,但在此之前,康德有一个理论性的奠基工作,其间涉及到康德对物自体和“对象”概念的界定,他当时探讨这一问题的语境是唯名论与实在论之间的争论,尤其是贝克莱的“实在就是被感知”这一观点的提出,对康德的物自体和“对象”概念起了一个奠基性的作用,这就是本论文第三章的内容,重点论证了亚里士多德从可能性的角度所谈论的期望情感、奥古斯丁在和佩拉纠的论战中所建立起的信任情感、贝克莱对不在当下的感觉中的事物之存在的信任情感、康德对贝克莱问题的解决而提出的“对象”概念,以及康德提出物自体概念时信任情感所起的作用,最后梳理了康德提出的“纯粹理性”(最狭义的理性)中的信任情感因素。第四——六章主要是分析了康德在《判断力批判》中对其宗教哲学内在张力的调和问题,其主线是康德的“合目的性”概念,具体分为主观合目的性和客观合目的性,前者在审美判断上得到体现,后者在大自然的有机物上得到体现,康德是从艺术品创作的有目的性,和只有显得像是自然的作品才是艺术品这一角度,来实现从自然到自由、从审美情感到道德感、从知识到道德的过渡,并从而调和其张力的。有了这个调和与过渡,康德就进入了他的理性宗教的建构,这是本文第六章和第七章的内容,其间康德由有机物的无目的的合目的性推论出自然终极目的,并将此与道德相联系,认为只有道德目的才是大自然的终极目的,由此引出了他的上帝存在的道德证明,并推论出了他的理性宗教。本论文的第七章重点论述了康德所提出的理性宗教到底能否可能,这里面涉及到不同于《实践理性批判》里从道德哲学出发所进行的上帝存在证明,即上帝存在的道德证明；除此之外还分析了康德理性宗教的核心：心灵改善问题,其关键问题在于人的向善原初禀赋的重建问题。在结语部分,本论文回到康德宗教哲学对其内在张力的调和问题,分析了康德宗教哲学里所“可能”的部分——以理性的态度对待宗教问题的合理性；也指出了其“不可能”的部分——对宗教信仰的对象不能以理性的态度对待之——它们是人的情感所指向的对象。本论文的研究方法除了进行文本分析外,突出了“情感指向”的作用。关于情感指向,我们主要做如下界定,即它是指人在一种情感中对该情感所寄托、维系或指向的对象所表现出来的倾向性。具体而言,这种具有指向性的情感包括审美中的愉悦感、惊恐中的恐惧感、愤怒中的愤恨感以及信任感等等。在本论文中,由于主题是关于宗教哲学的,所以我们主要处理期待式的情感和信任的情感。这两种情感,尤其是期待式的情感,在认识论中的作用,其学理依据可上溯至亚里士多德,他是从可能性的角度来谈论的①,这里面涉及到动词与时间的关系问题,在西方语言(以英语为例)中,表示一个动作的发生,其可能性一是靠情态动词来表达,二是靠时态来实现。比如,过去和现在所发生的事情,通过过去时和现在时即可表达,这不仅有语法的作用,也可通过感觉经验来支撑,即那些事情都在我们的经验之中；对未来的事情,在语法上固然可以由情态动词和将来时在句子上加以表达,但由于没有经验可以支撑与验证,所以其发生的可能性是未知的。从西方思想史的角度来看,经验论者没法保证尚未发生的事情的可能性；唯理论者虽然可以靠逻辑加以推演,并以分配真值的方式展示出来,但并没有解决可能性的程度有多大的问题,比如,某媒体报道,明天在济南将有一场A明星的演唱会,我们可以在逻辑上对其真值做如此分配：Ⅰ明天在济南可能有一场A明星的演唱会；Ⅱ明天在济南可能没有一场A明星的演唱会；Ⅲ明天在济南可能有也可能没有一场A明星的演唱会。其中Ⅰ的真值为百分之五十,Ⅱ的真值也为百分之五十,通过对这两个命题的真值分配,我们并不能解决明天这场演唱会的可能性问题。但演唱会的门票很快就被抢购一空,我们的问题是：人们凭什么在没有解决可能性的前提下去买门票?其答案只能是：凭着信任的情感。人们信任那家发布消息的媒体。这种信任的情感在认识论中,乃至在人的生存中起了重要的作用。比如像某电视台报道的,在某个偏僻的山村,有一村民发现了一个叫不出名字来的庞然大物来破坏庄稼,是否也攻击人尚不得而知,他向村民进行了讲述并发出了警告,提醒大家加以防范。尽管其他村民并未见过这个怪物,但在一种恐惧的情感中,还是相信它的存在并采取了相应的防卫措施。更为重要的是,许多村民通过不同途径来搞清这个怪物的身份,由此一来,这种情感所指向的对象给人们带来了认识论的意义。我们再把这种信任情感所指向的对象做一扩展,在宗教信仰中诸如上帝、佛陀、真主,以及民间传说中的鬼神妖魔等,它们并不像上面所说的演唱会的门票一样是可被经验到的,而毋宁说是虚幻的、非经验的,但我们如何来界定它们的实在性?只能是在一种信任的情感中。尽管我们可以说,对不信这些对象之存在的人来说,它们是不存在的,或者说是没有实在性的；但对那些相信此类对象存在的人而言,其实在性是毋庸置疑的,不过其前提表现在,这种实在性只是在信任一信仰的情感中得到支持的。由此一来,我们就看到,在认识论中,经验指称对概念的界定和情感指向对概念的界定具有同等重要的地位。对于第一种对概念进行界定的方式,在维特根斯坦的《哲学研究》中得到明显的体现①,从他当时设想的场景中,我们得知,A和B通过“方石”、“柱石”、“板石”、“条石”等概念对他们现场所能见到的石头进行了界定,且也顺利地完成了建筑工作,这就说明通过这种界定而达到了顺畅的沟通效果。现在让我们再进一步设想,A让B去取不在现场的另一种石材——圆石,B按照A的描述在另一个地方找到了这种石材并达到了A的要求,也完成了预定的建筑任务。我们在此需要进一步分析的是,B是凭什么去取那种圆石的?当然,我们可以认为：第一,B是凭着原先对不同石材的认识而构想出圆石的大致情形,然后再按照A的描述和要求而“按图索骥”般的找到的；第二,还有B对A的信任,因为他此前并没有见过圆石,也不能确保在A所述说的地方就一定找到圆石,但因着对A的信任,他确实找到了A所要求的圆石。由此可以看出,信任这种情感在对概念的界定中发挥了和经验指称同等重要的作用。本论文在处理康德呈现物自体概念时就是引进了这种信任情感(第三章第三节)。本论文的主题是通过梳理情感指向在西方思想史上的发展②,来呈现情感指向这一认识论中的重要功能在康德哲学中的作用,尤其是对他的物自体理论、道德情感和道德法则理论,以及情感在调和其宗教哲学内在张力中所起的作用。这对进一步深入理解康德哲学带来一个新的视角,至于其价值也有待于学界的进一步评论与指教。更多还原

【Abstract】 Most of the scholars who study Kant’s philosophy basically accept the idea that Kant’s philosophy is rational and Kant makes a compromise and reconciliation between empiricism and rationalism. Besides, most of the scholars think that sentimental factors in Kant’s philosophy lie in Kant’s earlier works such as An Observation of Sense of Beauty and Sense of Sublimation and Critique of the Power of Judgment. According to this, when we deal with Kant’s philosophy of religion, we often take a rational attitude. Especially after Kant puts his idea of rational religion in his works, most of the people get an idea like this that his rational religion means "handling" Christianity with rationalism. Kant’s explanation of the Holy Bible has proved it. Still we can understand Kant’s philosophy from the point of "sentiment", the sentiment includes not only the sense of beauty-judgment but also the sense of religion which Kant indulged in from his childhood. But what we want to point out is that the moral feeling in Kant’s moral philosophy has a relationship with the above mentioned sentiment. Kant’s understanding about religious feeling is based on Luther’s religious thought, this leads to a logical clue from Augustine to Luther which plays an important role in this thesis. This thesis traces the clue and explores the relation between trust feeling and reason in Augustine and Luther’s thought, accordingly displays the function of the inner tension rooted in the above two factors (trust feeling and reason) in Kant’s philosophy of religion.This thesis aims at revealing the sentimental factors in Kant’s philosophy, in other words, this thesis wants to improve the study of Kant’s philosophy with the inner tension between sentiment and reason①. During this course, making the coherence clue clear which originated from different philosophers before Kant is very important. This thesis mainly deals with Augustine and Luther’s thought. These are the contents in chapter one. They include Augustine’s perplexed epistemology of grace, Luther’s double authorities from God and conscience, and Kant’s logical dilemma in his grace theory.In chapter two, this thesis presents the inner tensions in Kant’s philosophy of religion, they include the inner tension between the appearance and noumenon of person; the inner tension between perception and reason; the inner tension between self-help and the help from God to pursue the highest good. These inner tension are caused mainly by human being’s character, that is, on the one hand human beings are sensational; on the other hand they are rational.In chapter three, this thesis mainly deals with how to reconcile these inner tensions. But before that, the basic work for Kant is to lay a foundation for presenting "the-thing-in-itself". The context of presenting "the-thing-in-itself is the debate between nominalism and realism, especially the theory of "reality is perception"(or "to be is to be perceived") from Berkeley, give Kant some instructive thought. Besides that, the expect feeling originated from possibility which was given by Aristotle and the trust feeling originated from the debate between Augustine and Pelagianism also gives Kant some instructive thought.In chapter four, this thesis mainly deals with the reconciliation for these inner tensions in Critique of the Power of Judgment. Its main clue is purposiveness. It includes the subjective purposiveness and the objective purposiveness. The former is exemplified in the taste judgment, the latter is exemplified in the organics from the nature. Kant get the idea of purposiveness from the artwork, it means that when the artist wants to make an artwork, he/she usually form a purpose in his/her mind. Finally after he/she finishes the work, only when the work looks like an organics, it is the real artwork.In chapter five, this thesis mainly deals with the reconciliation for these inner tensions in Critique of the Power of Judgment. Its main clue is objective purposiveness. In other words, the objective purposiveness is exemplified on the organics in the nature. From this clue, Kant achieve his reconciliation for these inner tensions and make a transition from knowledge to morality, from the nature to the freedom, from the taste feeling to the moral feeling.In chapter five, this thesis mainly deals with the reconciliation for these inner tensions in Critique of the Power of Judgment. Its main clue is the moral religion. But Kant’s argument for the existence of God is different from the argument in the Critique of the Practical Reason. In the Critique of the Practical Reason, Kant thought that God is necessary for the moral theory, without God, we can not guarantee the happiness for the people who do things according to the moral law. But in Critique of the Power of Judgment, Kant’s argument for the existence of God is based on the argument in the Critique of the Practical Reason. He thought that the existence of God in moral-ended theory is to prove the final end in the nature.The study method for this thesis, apart from reading the original text, is to adopt the "sentiment endowment" method. This method points out that on the one hand, a sentiment or a feeling does not mean an only subjective mood which refers to anything before the person who having the subjective mood; on the other hand, it usually points to an object surrounding the person who perceive it, concretely the object is a necessary sensual one. Such as this, when you are in a horrible situation, you must afraid of some dangerous thing, even this existence which you are afraid of does not exist like an object of senses. This objective thing of a sentiment has a real endowment in meaning for defining a term.更多还原