【作者】 孙艳艳；

【导师】 高鉴国；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 外国哲学， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 随着权利与人权观念在世界范围内的发展,人权话语逐渐扩张,人权主体逐渐普遍化,儿童的权利问题逐渐地引起了不同学科的关注和讨论。从人类历史来看,儿童以及儿童权利的发现,是人类社会发展历史上的重要里程碑,对儿童权利的研究在近现代社会呈现出日益增多的趋势。中国学术界对儿童权利的关注始于1989年联合国《儿童权利公约》颁布之后。至此,大量涌现出的研究文献表明中国学术界和政策界对儿童权利以及儿童问题的重视。然而,由于中国儿童权利研究是在国际社会推动下后发形成的,对于中国传统文化而言是一种“舶来品”。大多数研究基于《儿童权利公约》的约定进行描述性研究或者解释性研究,往往将儿童拥有权利视为不证自明的真理,缺乏对儿童权利理论深层次的反思和讨论,缺乏对儿童道德地位的分析和思考,这也导致了在儿童权利保护的立法与政策实践中往往停留在形式化的层面,儿童的地位并没有得到根本的改善。相对而言,西方社会对儿童以及儿童权利关注更早,甚至可以追溯到17世纪左右,围绕着儿童权利产生了不同的理论观念和流派。鉴于此,本文通过梳理西方理论发展过程中对儿童、权利以及儿童权利相关问题的认识,从道德哲学与权利哲学的角度,对儿童权利基本问题的脉络进行深入解构和分析,把握儿童权利的主体、内容以及边界等基本问题,明确儿童权利理论自身的逻辑、内容和价值基础,以为中国以及世界各国儿童权利保护的立法与政策提供一种基本的理论基础。在具体的分析过程中,论文主要讨论了儿童权利的内涵与性质、儿童权利的正当性、儿童权利的主体内容、儿童权利与父母权利之间的关系以及国家亲权对儿童和家庭干预的范围等问题。要理解儿童权利的概念和本质,首先应该明确“儿童”的含义与本质,可以说,有什么样的儿童观,就有什么样的儿童权利观。儿童既是人类生物发展的一个必经阶段,又是一种社会文化建构的产物。以往的儿童研究揭示出,人类历史上对儿童本质的认识并不统一,即使当代不同文化内也会产生诸多差异性。对儿童认识经历了一个较为漫长的历史过程,总体趋势是儿童逐渐摆脱了对家庭、父母的依附和附属地位,获得与成年人相同的道德地位,儿童作为积极行动者的价值也逐渐被认同。在明晰了儿童这一核心概念之后,澄清并把握“权利”的本质和内涵也对理解儿童权利至关重要。利益论、选择论、资格论、要求论等基于不同的理论概念和论证逻辑来认识权利本质,为把握儿童权利提供了基础。由于儿童与成年人所具有的差异性,儿童权利的要素综融了权利的不同面向,即儿童权利不仅是利益、资格,也是要求、选择,任何单一面向下理解儿童权利都会存在着一定的简单化和片面化倾向。总的看来,儿童权利从最初关注困境中的儿童发展到关注所有儿童、从最初关注儿童生活境遇的改善发展到关注儿童自身的自主和自决,儿童权利理论在历史流变中的发展轨迹揭示出人类对自身的反思和社会结构的演变。尽管面临着诸多批判和反驳,儿童权利话语的价值和重要性是不容忽视的。虽然解答了“什么是儿童权利”这一问题,但是“儿童为什么拥有权利”呢?儿童权利话语是否具有正当性?反对者认为权利话语并不适合儿童,即使认同儿童权利的一些学者,也会认为儿童本身并不能成为权利主体,而应由其父母或者其他成年监护者来代为行使。西方权利哲学的传统将“人”限定为理性的成年人,将权利与行使权利的能力相联系,因而将儿童排除在外,因而,基于“儿童是人,所以拥有人权”的人权论证逻辑易受攻击。儿童权利理论者利用主体能力的权利建构范式,或者是从儿童缺乏能力的现实出发、或者基于儿童具备能力的科学研究出发来论证儿童作为权利主体的正当性,虽然能够提供有力的证据和理论支持,但是将权利与能力连接起来的范式本身并不利于儿童权利(尤其是自主性权利)的主张。随着西方哲学从主体性向主体间性的转向,儿童权利论证的范式也开始强调通过主体间关系来为儿童权利提供正当性,儿童权利成为成年人与儿童之间的一种协商、沟通与承认。然而这种论证范式也使得儿童受制于成年社会,因为儿童协商能力的不成熟使得儿童权利成为成年人主导下的产物。本研究提出了以需要为基础的儿童权利分析框架,借助生态系统理论对儿童发展的描述,将主体能力范式与主体间关系范式整合,又回归到儿童的需要和人的本性,为儿童权利提供正当性。既然儿童拥有权利,那么儿童拥有哪些基本权利呢?从儿童的需要出发,儿童生存权和自由权成为儿童最为核心的权利,这两类核心权利又可以结合《儿童权利公约》以及其他人权文件具体化为不同的权利类型。虽然无法穷尽儿童所有的权利类型,但是这一基于哲学和法学的讨论将为儿童权利的操作化和具体化提供一个指导。由于儿童具体权利基于不同的理论假设和价值基础,儿童权利之间会发生冲突,坚持“儿童最佳利益”原则,将儿童的利益和发展放到首位,便能有效地协调和解决不同权利之间的冲突。儿童权利也面临着外部的挑战和冲突,最首要的来自于父母权利。传统上通常将家庭内部事务交给父母来裁定和处置,因而,儿童权利话语的产生使一些人担忧传统的父母权利受到挑战。随着社会的发展,父母权利也经历了由家长本位、父本位以及儿童本位的历史演变过程。父母权利与儿童权利之间既有一致性,也不可避免地存在着矛盾和冲突,如父母权利的滥用与缺失、父母权利的过度干预等都会对儿童生活造成影响,阻碍儿童权利的实现。实际上,儿童权利与父母权利并非完全对立的,二者能够结合起来共同应对社会的不公,但是在某些特定的情况下应该对父母权利进行一些限制乃至剥夺。儿童权利话语也挑战了传统上对国家和家庭关系的认识。家庭与国家之间呈现出不同的关系态势,在不同的历史阶段,国家对家庭的干预强度与广度并不一致。针对国家是否应该干预家庭以及在多大程度上干预家庭,不同理论流派的看法不一,或者主张自由主义下的家庭自治,或者主张国家干预家庭。现代社会关系的转变已经使得国家干预成为家庭和儿童利益的重要保护,但是这种国家干预也是有一定的限制的,因而本研究也讨论了国家亲权理论下,国家对家庭干预的原则以及对国家权力的限制。通过对以上问题的阐述,本研究将补充和完善权利理论研究,对一些已有的研究主题,如义务、责任等提供启示,进一步深化中国儿童权利理论研究,澄清由于文化和价值冲突所导致的对儿童权利一些基本问题的模糊、混乱认识。虽然本研究主要基于西方儿童权利的发展脉络进行梳理,但是本研究最终将为中国儿童保护制度与政策提供基础。事实上,如果脱离了理论基础和社会背景,简单地将西方儿童权利保护制度进行移植或者复制,很难使儿童权利保护制度发挥其有效性。这一切的研究目的实际上都服务于一个最终的目标,即实现儿童的自由和自我价值。本研究期望通过这一学术性的探讨,来唤起社会各方对儿童问题的关注和审视,以进一步对儿童的地位、儿童的自由、家庭教育与学校教育的目的等问题进行反思,从而为儿童的发展和自我价值的实现创造一个良好的社会环境。就目前中国学术界对儿童权利研究的现状而言,本论文有如下几方面的创新。第一,目前大多数研究集中在对儿童权利的经验研究或行动研究,从权利哲学、道德哲学的理论脉络下梳理不同理论和学者对儿童、儿童权利问题的相关认识和讨论是目前较新的一种尝试；第二,目前大多数研究将儿童拥有权利视为不证自明的,本论文深入讨论了不同论证范式对儿童作为权利主体的论证,为儿童权利理论建构提供一个基础；第三,在考察儿童权利问题时,不仅关注对儿童与权利问题的分析和理解,而且强调围绕儿童权利所产生的不同权力关系进行分析,例如家庭内部的权力关系、家庭与国家政府之间的权力关系等,这一视角有助于补充目前对儿童权利的研究。总之,较之目前学术界中主要针对儿童权利保护的法律、政策、程序等研究,本论文试图从儿童权利背后的理论逻辑、主导价值、所涉及的主体关系等角度出发来关注儿童与权利问题。但是,本文的不足也很明显。首先,由于作者跨专业所导致的理论视角和知识结构的差异性,在梳理西方权利哲学和道德哲学有关儿童权利的相关理论和认识时,难免有所遗漏或者偏差,影响了相关内容的完备性；其次,由于所涉及的内容较多,使分析的深度受到影响,使得一些章节的理论性较为薄弱,比如第三章；再次,对儿童权利背后的价值、伦理等问题分析的不够深入。这些将是未来努力进行突破和完善的主要方向。当然,围绕儿童权利还有很多其他的重要问题,例如儿童权利保护的原则、法律框架、政策与制度设计以及具体的儿童服务技能、价值等等,本论文并没有深入到这些具体问题当中进行讨论和分析,但是不可否认的是,对这些问题的认识和分析对保护和增进儿童权利也是十分重要的,甚至同样起着非常关键的作用。这些问题也为本论文开放了进一步研究的空间,吸引着作者对儿童权利保持着持续的研究兴趣和热情。更多还原

【Abstract】 With the worldwide development of the concept of rights and human rights, the human rights discourse expands greatly as the universalization of the subjects of human rights. Children’rights have raised the attention and discussion of different disciplines. The discovery of the children and children’s rights is an important milestone for the history of the human society. Studies focused on children’s rights are more and more in the modern society. Chinese academics paid attention to children’s rights after the UN Convention on the Rights of Children enacted. Thus, the emergence of a huge number of literatures shows the emphasis on the issues about children’s rights both from the Chinese academics and policies. However, researches on the children’s rights in China were promoted by the international society, which is more like an "exotic" for the Chinese traditional culture. Most of the studies are descriptive or explanatory based on the contract of Convention on the Rights of Children and take it for granted that the child should have rights, lacking in-depth reflection and discussion of the children’s rights theory as well as the analysis of the moral status of the children. So, the legislation and policy practice of the protection for children’s rights stay in the pro forma level and the status of children has not been improved fundamentally. Comparatively, the western society focused on the issue of children’s rights earlier, which can date back to17th century. Different theories and schools were generated based on children’s rights. Whereas, by summarizing the knowledge related to the children, rights and children’s rights throughout the development of the western theory, this dissertation tries to deconstruct and analyze the the basic issues of children’s rights, to grasp the fundamental issues such as the subject, content and boundaries of children’s rights, to confirm the logic, content and value basis of the children rights theory from the perspective of moral and rights philosophy, aimed at providing a theoretical foundation for the legislation and policy-making of the protection of the children’s rights both in and out China.This dissertation mainly talks about issues concerning the connotation, character, legitimacy and contents of the children’s rights, the relationship between the children’s rights and parents’rights as well as how much can the Parens Patriae intervene the children and their families. To understand the concept and nature of the children’s rights, the first thing is to make sure the meaning and essence of "child", because the view of the children’s rights is determined by the perspective about child. Child is a certain stage that every human being deemed to go through, as well as the product of the social culture’s construction. Previous studies on child and childhood reveal that there is no unified recognition for the essence of children. Differences exist even within the contemporary world. Understanding of children experienced a relatively long historical process. The overall trend is that the kids get rid of the dependent and subordination status to family or parents, getting an equal moral status same as the adults. The value that children as positive actors have gradually been recognized. After clarifying the concept of children, the clarity of the essence and meaning of "rights" come into practice. Interest theory, choice theory, entilement theory, claiming theory and so on explore the nature of rights based on different theoretical concepts and reasoning logic, providing the foundation for the understanding of children’s rights. Because of the differences between children and adults, the elements of children’s rights combine different aspects of rights, which mean the rights of children are not only interests, eligibility, but also requirements and choice. Understanding the rights of children from one aspect will lead to the simplification and partialization. All in all, today, chidren’s rights not only focused on the children trapped in difficulties only, but also covered every child, from the improvement of the children’s daily lives to the autonomy and self-determination of the children. The development trajectory of the theories of children rights in the historical development and change reveals reflections of human beings towards themselves and the evolution of the social structure. Despite facing a lot of criticism and rebuttal, the value and importance of children’s rights discourse can not be ignored.Although the question "what are children’s rights" has already be answered, how about "why do children have rights"? Whether the children’s rights have its legitimacy? The opponents argue that rights discourse is not suitable for children. Even some of the scholars who agree with the children’s rights also believe that children themselves can not be the subject of rights. It should be their parents or other adult guardians to exercise on behalf of the children. Traditional western human rights philosophy defines the "people" as the rational adults and links the rights to the capacity of exercising the rights. Therefore, the children are excluded. The argumentation logics which based on "the children are human beings, so they have the human rights" are easily attacked. Some scholors used this paradigm to prove the legitimacy of the children as the subject of rights from the reality that the children lacking of ability, or from the findings based on the children possess ability. Although they can provide powerful evidential and theoretical support, the paradigm connecting the rights with ability is not good for children’s rights (especially the autonomous rights). With the transferring of western philosophy from subjectivity to inter-subjectivity, the paradigm demonstrating began to emphasize on using the inter-subjectivity to provide legitimacy for the rights of children. The children’s rights became a kind of negotiation, communication and acknowledgement between children and adult. However, this paradigm makes children subjected to the adults’society, because they can not use the ability of negotiation well, children’s rights become dominant by the adults. This study brings about the analysis frame for the rights of children that based on the needs. Using the description made by Ecological Systems Theory for the development of children integrates the subjectivity capacity paradigm and inter-subjectivity paradigm, offering the legitimacy for the rights of children by getting back to the nature of children.Now that children have right, what kinds of basic rights do they have then? From the needs of children, the right of survival and freedom become the core rights of children. These core rights can be specified to different right type combined with the Convention on the Rights of Children and other human rights documents. While it is not possible to end up all of the types of the children’s rights, based on philosophy and law, this dissertation offered the guidance for the operationalization and specified the children’s rights. Due to base on various theoretical hypothesis and values, the rights of children can be conflicted to each other. By insisting on the principle of "the child’s best interests" and putting the interests and development of children into the first place, the confliction among the different rights can be solved effectively.The rights of children also facing the external challenges and conflicts, the primary one comes from the rights of parents. Traditionally, it is the parents who decide and deal with the internal family affairs, therefore, the emergence of the children’s rights discourse made some people worried that the traditional rights of parents would be challenged. As the society developing, the rights of parents also experienced the historical evolution changing from the paternal-oriented to parents-oriented, and then to child-oriented. There is consistency between the parents’rights and children’s rights, as well as the existing of the contradicts and conflicts inevitably, such as the abuse and deficiency of the parents’rights and over intervention of the parents’rights will affect the lives of children, hinder the children’s rights to be utilized. In fact, children’s rights and parents’rights are not diametrically opposed, the two can be combined together to deal with social injustice, but under certain circumstances the parents’rights should be constricted or even deprived.Children’s rights discourse also challenges the traditional understanding of the relationship between the state and the family. There are different relations between the state and family. During the different stages in the history, the strength and depth of the state intervention in the family is not consistent. For whether and to what extent should the state intervene families, different theories have various views. The views go with the family autonomy shaped by liberalism or the state intervention the families. Changes in the modern social relations made the state intervention an important protection to the interest of families and children, but this kind of state intervention has its limitation. Thus, this study also discusses the principles of the state intervention to family and the limitations to the state power based on the theory of Parens Patriae.Through the elaboration of the above issues, this study will complete and improve theoretical studies of children’s rights and bring inspiration for those existing study topics such as duties and responsibilities, which will further deepen the theoretical study of children’s rights and clarify those confused understanding of some basic issues about children’s rights caused by conflicts of culture and values. Although this study is mainly based on sorting out the developmental context of western children’s right, this study will ultimately provide the basis for Chinese child protection system and policies. Actually, if we ignore the theoretical foundation and social background and simply transplant or copy Western Children’s Rights protection system, it is difficult to make the system effective. In fact, this whole study is to serve an ultimate goal, which is the realization of children’s freedom and self-worth. By this academic exploration, this study aims at arousing the attention and review to children’s issues from all sectors of the society in order to further reflect on these issues about children such as children’s status, children’s freedom, family education and school education and so on, which will be helpful for creating a good social environment for their development and realization of self-worth.The innovations of this dissertation are following. Firstly, current studies concentrate upon the Empirical study and action research, it’s a new try to discuss the child and children’s rights from moral philosophy and political philosophy. Secondly, current studies take it for granted that the child should have rights, this dissertation analyze different reasoning paradigm on children’s rights in depth to give provide a basis for theory construction of children’s rights. Thirdly, this dissertation not only pays attention to analyze the concepts such as children and rights, but also focuses on the power relationships around children, parents and state. In a word, compared with current studies on law, policies, procedures et al. to protect children’s rights, this dissertation tries to analyze the theoretical logic, values, relationship between different powers behind children’s rights.However, this dissertation also has some limitations. First of all, because of the author’s different perspective and knowledge structure from other discipline, inevitably, there are some omissions or errors in tracing theories about children and children’s rights in the moral philosophy and political philosophy, which will affect the completeness of relevant issues. Secondly, the depth of analysis decreases when the dissertation what to cover more topics. Thirdly, Values, ethics and so on behind children’s rights are not comprehensive. These will be the future direction to make breakthrough and development.This study has mainly reflected on these issues including children’s deserved rights, conflicts of the right, relationships among children, family and country, etc. Undoubtedly, there are still many important issues involved in children’s rights such as the principles of protection for children’s rights, the law frame, the design of policy and system, the skills and values in specific service for children and so on. However, this study has not done in-depth analysis and discussion in these issues. It is surely that the cognition and analysis to these issues are very important, which even will play a key role. These issues also open an essential space for the further study, which will surely attract author’s persistent interest and enthusiasm for further study.更多还原