【作者】 戴孝军；

【导师】 仪平策；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 文艺学， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 中国古塔是一种具有中国特色的佛教建筑类型。它是中国的建筑匠师们把印度的覆钵塔与中国传统的建筑类型亭台楼阁等结合起来而创造出来的一种中国式塔,是中国传统建筑文化与印度佛教建筑文化融合的产物,是一种独特的文化现象。佛塔自从汉末传入中国内地之后,在中国建筑传统、审美心理和宗教观念的影响下,历经魏晋南北朝、隋唐、宋辽金、元明清二千多年的历史沧桑,其体量、造型、结构、功能、装饰、材料以及与环境的互动关系等各方面都发生了很大的变化,造成了中国古塔形式上的千姿百态、功能上的丰富多彩、装饰上的美轮美奂等,具有较高的审美文化价值。本文从审美文化的视角,对中国古塔进行了全面研究。研究的目的就是要揭示出中国古塔审美文化的神秘性、世俗性和美观性等主要特征,从而加深对中国古代审美文化的认识和了解。中国古塔的形式渊源,包括古印度与西域两个部分。古印度的佛塔造型是源头,而西域的佛塔造型则是中介。中国内地的佛塔形式直接受印度和西域佛塔造型的影响。印度的佛塔主要包括覆钵塔和高塔两种。覆钵塔主要是以半球形的倒扣覆钵为主,其上是方形的平头和伞盖,其下是圆形的塔基,塔基与覆钵之间是供信徒右旋环绕的圆形甬道,甬道是由栏栀围绕而成,东、西、南、北出口各有一个牌楼(又名陀兰那)耸立。古印度的率堵波建筑充满佛教文化的象征性,覆钵象征佛陀的涅槃和宇宙；平头及柱竿和柱竿上所穿的伞盖,象征佛、法、僧三宝；右旋绕塔的甬道象征达到佛陀涅槃的境界。四个牌楼上雕刻了许多与佛陀紧密相关的美妙的莲花卷纹,以及天鹅、孔雀、大象等佛陀化身的仁禽义兽,造型逼真,形态优美,形成陀兰那艺术。可见古印度的率堵波是佛教文化与陀兰那艺术融合为一的产物。其特点是充满浓厚的佛性意味和宗教色彩,具有崇拜的神圣性和超世俗性,并常常靠艺术的手段作为弘扬佛法的得力工具,因此,古印度的率堵波建筑文化除了宗教崇拜的神圣性外,还具有一定程度上的美观属性,是崇拜和美观双重属性的统一。另外,随着大乘佛教的兴起,古印度的窣堵波就变为犍陀罗地区的高塔,这种高塔首先没有了桑奇大塔的栏楯与塔门,覆钵和基坛的周围以壁柱划分壁龛,壁龛内供奉着佛像,改变了窣堵波时期以动植物形象来象征佛陀的局面。覆钵的外围和基坛的侧面则装饰着佛教故事浮雕嵌板。其次,塔基、塔身和塔刹都被大大的拉高了,塔基由原先的圆形变为多层的四方形,塔身也由实心变为中空,以便设置佛像,塔刹的覆钵部分比例缩小,但相轮部分层数增加,整体气势上是给人高耸挺拔之感。这种塔像一体的高塔造型使得佛塔的神圣性大为增强,因为佛陀的神像直指人心,比用其他的动植物加以象征来的直接。西域佛塔的造型基本上是继承犍陀罗地区的高塔,也是方形的基座和圆柱形的塔身,塔身上有佛像,佛塔的神圣性较为强烈。中国古塔在继承古印度率堵波和犍陀罗及西域高塔的基础上,结合中国的传统建筑类型楼、台、亭、阁等创造了具有中国特色的汉式塔。汉式塔以楼阁式塔及其变体密檐式塔为主要类型。楼阁式塔主要由中国下部层层分隔的楼阁与顶端比例缩小的印度窣堵波融合而成,塔内中空可以登临。密檐式塔是楼阁式塔的变体,其主要由第一层高大的塔身和塔身之上层层的密檐组成,多为实心,不能登临。从审美文化的视角来看,中国古塔仍然一直延续了印度佛塔的神秘性,但随着儒道精神的浸染,中国古塔逐渐增加了功能上的世俗性和造型上的美观性。魏晋南北朝是中国古塔形成、发展、繁荣的时期。楼阁式塔从层数较少,体量较小逐渐变为多层高广、体量较大。但由于魏晋南北朝时期的审美文化追求气韵生动,身心舒展,且以自然为美,注重在心物的交融中来满足心灵需要,所以层数虽然增多,体积虽然变大,但由于此时主要的楼阁式塔在塔檐和塔身上常用曲线,增加了建筑外形的活泼道劲,因此建筑造型也从汉代的雄浑大气逐渐转向了质朴轻灵。而此时唯美的审美文化风尚和佛教的装饰风格也使得佛塔变得绮丽。隋唐时期的审美文化开放自信、兼收并蓄、大气磅礴,反映在建筑群体上就是气势恢宏、雄伟壮观,反映在建筑单体则显得端庄、稳重,而佛塔也以刚健、端庄的造型取胜,装饰上则较为质朴、简洁。宋代的审美文化内敛保守,理性有余而自由不足,追求精致典雅,文人色彩较为浓厚,表现在建筑技术上则以《营造法式》中所规定的建筑构件的模数制为标准,使建筑建造逐渐走向制度化、标准化、审美化。宋塔受其影响也呈现出建造技术上的清秀典雅的造型风格。辽金因地处边陲,文化落后,主要吸收中原文化,再加上崇信佛教,因此佛塔以不能登临的实心密檐塔为主,在基座和塔身上装饰了繁缛富丽的佛教题材,佛性意味浓厚,显得雄壮华丽。明清时代的审美文化新旧美学观念强烈碰撞,伦理文化的理性约束逐渐走向了僵化保守,使得官式建筑更加方正中则,轴线清晰,条理分明,成为伦理文化的形象阐释。而具有个性解放性质的“唯情说”、“童心说”等新的美学观念又为建筑创造带来了新的契机。这种创造不是表现在建筑形式的创新上,而是表现在对建筑细节的改造上。这个时期人们在继续完善建筑形式的基础上,极力追求建筑细节的繁复装饰,使建筑逐渐走向了工艺化、审美化。明清时期的佛塔在建筑造型没有大的变化,但细节上更繁复华美。中国古塔是与寺庙紧密联系在一起的。隋唐之前,无论是印度和西域的宫塔寺,还是中国内地的楼塔寺,都是在寺庙中心建塔,即立塔为寺。这种佛塔居中,周围绕以附属建筑的布局风格是佛教教义的要求,信徒礼拜的需要,彰显了佛塔的神圣性。但中国内地的楼塔寺在彰显佛塔神圣性的同时也逐渐呈现出世俗性的特征,主要表现在中轴线上主要建筑依次排列,周围以附属建筑加以围合。隋唐以后,随着中国化佛教——禅宗的兴盛和发展,其所主张的“教外别传,不立文字。直指人心,见性成佛”的禅法修行,特别是“直指人心,见性成佛”的顿悟修行,彻底破除了信徒对佛经和佛像神圣性的崇拜,使得佛陀的象征物——佛塔也失去了神圣的色彩,逐渐偏离于寺院的中心,位于殿之傍或殿之后,后来逐渐游离于寺院之外,佛殿则逐渐成为中轴线上的主要建筑。这样就使得佛塔的神圣性大为淡化,世俗性逐渐增强。中国的寺庙是一种园林化的布局,因此中国佛塔还与寺庙园林关系密切。在印度,佛塔是寺庙园林的中心建筑,具有神圣性和超世俗性,而鲜花果实主要作为祭品供养佛塔和寺内僧人果腹之食。到了中国内地之后,塔在园林中仍然具有神圣性,但美好的鲜花果实不再作为单纯供养佛塔的祭品和寺内僧人果腹之食,而是具有较为浓厚的审美意味。佛塔此时居于寺庙园林之中,其造型和装饰的神秘性和美观性直接震撼了进入寺庙中的信徒和香客的心灵,给他们以强烈的心灵震撼,同时也加强了园林审美的力度和力量。而园林的审美性也补充了宗教,使人们易于理解宗教、走进宗教。随着舍宅为寺的盛行和向山林佛寺的转化,佛塔的体量和位置受到限制,其逐渐成为园林的构景因素。到明清时期,统治阶级有意识地把佛塔和皇家园林融合,使得佛塔成为勾勒中国园林风景的一个重要因素。中国古塔特别是楼阁式塔是中国建筑文化最好的形象阐释。高大、雄伟、威严的中国楼阁是古代的统治阶级借以炫耀财富、地位,登高揽胜,渴望羽化成仙的最好平台。这种平台随着儒家伦理文化的广泛渗透具有越来越浓厚的现世性、世俗性和人间性,但道家的羽化成仙思想也使得楼阁具有迎接仙人,渴望成仙的超越意味,因此,楼阁在秦汉时期就具有娱神与娱人的审美文化意蕴。在魏晋南北朝时期,印度率堵波与中国楼阁融合组成的楼阁式塔也具有娱神与娱人的统一性。这是中国古塔的文化功能。楼阁式塔在此时期的大规模建造既是魏晋士人们崇信佛教、追求超脱,媚神祈福的娱神需要,又是魏晋士人们追求气韵生动、以自然为美,在心物的交融中来满足自由活泼心灵的需要。从审美文化的视角来看,中国古塔文化具有三个主要特征：神秘性、世俗性和美观性。神秘性是中国古塔延续印度佛塔文化的主要特征,主要表现在三个方面：一是建造观念上多为弘扬佛法而建；二是装饰上多为一些佛教题材；三是平面布置上具有宗教含义。世俗性是中国古塔区别于印度佛塔的主要文化特征,它是在借助佛塔神秘性的力量来达到某种如登高揽胜、瞭敌警戒、补充风水、振兴文风等实用功能。这些功能是中国现世文化的一种表现,更是人间性、世俗性、实用性在佛塔造型上的一种运用。中国审美文化的美观性也在中国古塔身上体现出来。这主要从塔基的稳定、塔身的形状及其节奏之美、塔刹的高耸以及建塔的材料之美、平面造型之美、曲线之美等彰显出来。更多还原

【Abstract】 Chinese Ancient Pagoda is a Buddhist architecture with Chinese characteristics, which is a combination of Indian covered bowl tower and Chinese traditional pavilions created by Chinese craftsmen. As a product integrating Chinese traditional architecture culture and Indian Buddhist architecture culture, it has developed into a unique cultural phenomenon. Ancient Buddhist pagoda has a long history of more than2,000years since its entrance in China’s mainland in late Han Dynasty, experiencing changes during Wei, Jin, Sui, Tang, Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Under the constant influence of Chinese architectural tradition, aesthetic judgement and religious ideas, it has greatly changed in its modeling, structure, function, decoration, building materials and interaction with the environment, resulting in hundreds of Chinese Ancient Pagoda with high aesthetic and cultural value, abundant in forms, rich in functions, splendid in decoration.The dissertation is to study thoroughly the Chinese ancient pagoda from an aesthetic culture perspectives. The purpose is to unveil the mystery, secularity and beauty of the Chinese ancient pagoda so as to deepen the understanding of Chinese ancient aesthetic culture.Forms of Ancient Chinese pagoda mainly derive from two sources:ancient Indian and ancient western China, with ancient Indian stupa as the origin, and ancient western China pagoda as an intermediary. The direct influence of the two sources on the form of Chinese mainland pagoda are:India covered bowl tower and the western China high tower. The modeling of covered bowl tower is a hemispherical covered bowl with a square flat head and a canopy on top and a circular tower base at the bottom. In between the tower base and the covered bowl is a circular corridor for believers to enring clockwise. The corridor is surrounded by a fence with an exit on four directions:east, west, north and south, standing at each exit is a decorative archway. The architectural style of Ancient Indian pagoda is full symbolic features of Buddhist culture:The covered bowl symbolizes Buddha’s Nirvana and the universe; the flat head and column support and the canopy on the column symbolizes Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha; clockwise corridor symbolizes the realm reaching Buddha Nirvana. Carved on the four archways are wonderful curled lotus patterns related to Buddha, and righteous poultry and benevolent beasts like swans, peacocks, elephants of Buddha incarnation. These are so vividly carved and look almost real, forming Tuo Lanna art. Obviously, ancient Indian stupa has integrated Buddhist culture and Tuo Lanna art and featured a strong Buddhist and religious implication, sacred and spiritual, and promoting Buddhism principle by means of art. Therefore, in addition to sanctity of religious worship, the architectural culture of ancient Indian pagoda has its aesthetic properties as well, combining the dual attributes of religious worship and aesthetic judgement. Besides, with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the ancient Indian stupa has changed into the high tower of Gandhara region, which has first lost its fence and tower gate. Surrounded its covered bowl and base are Niches separated by pilasters, with Buddha in each for worshiping. This has changed the convention of using flora and fauna to symbolize Buddha in the period of stupa. The peripheral side of the covered bowl and the base is decorated with relief panels about Buddhist stories. Secondly, Taki, tower and Tasha are greatly stretched. The circular base is replaced by a multi-layered square and a solid tower body is changed into a hollow tower body to lay the Buddha. The covered bowl of Tasha is proportionally reduced, with layers increased, the overall momentum is overwhelming. The modeling of uniting the tower and Buddha as one greatly enhances the sacredness of pagoda, because it impresses directly on people’s heart, far more effective compared with flora and fauna symbols. The modeling of Western China pagoda has inherited the features of high tower in Gandhara region, having a square base and a column tower body carved with Buddha and thus has intensive sanctity.Having inherited features from ancient India stupa and Gandhara and Western China tower, Chinese ancient pagoda has integrated features of Chinese traditional building like Pavilion and developed into Han-style pagoda with Chinese characteristics, mainly including pavilion-style tower and tight tiles tower. Pavilion-style tower has a top like Indian stupa, with intense separated layers like Chinese pavilion, and a hollow body through which people can climb up to the top. Tight tiles tower is a variant of pavilion-style tower, with a huge first storey as the tower body and layers of tight tiles on the top. Most tower body are solid and has no way to climb up. From aesthetic perspective, Chinese ancient pagoda has further developed the mystery of ancient Indian pagoda. But with the influence of Confucianism and Taoism, it has developed worldly in function and beauty in appearance. Wei Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties witnessed the form, development and prosperity of Chinese ancient pagoda. And the Pavilion-style tower has changed from few layers and small body to multi-layer and larger body. However, due to the aesthetic and cultural change in Southern and Northern Dynasties, when intellectuals pursue lively spirit and charm style, physical and mental freedom, natural beauty is emphasize to meet the spiritual needs. So even with the number of layers increased, and the body of pagoda enlarged, the curves applied to the tower eaves and body still makes the architectural appearance look vigorous and forceful. Thus, the architectural modeling changed from vigorous and firm in Han Dynasty to simple and ethereal. Meanwhile the beauty for beauty’s sake aesthetic fashion and Buddhist decoration style makes the pagoda gorgeous. The aesthetic culture of Sui and Tang dynasties is open and confident, all-embracing and Majestic, resulting in a magnificent, majestic architectural style. As a result, the individual building is dignified and stable, and the pagoda at that time appears forceful, dignified with simple and neat decoration. The aesthetic culture of Song dynasty is constrained and conservative, more rational but less free, pursuing sophistication and elegancy, resulting in an clear and elegant architectural style. It has been exemplified on the building technology sticking to the structural element in Yingzao Fashi (Treatise on Architectural Methods) and meeting the standard of institution and aesthetic judgement. Under this influence, the pagoda in Song Dynasty appears beautiful and elegant in modeling technology. The culture of Liao and Jin Dynasties is backward for its remote location. People mainly absorb culture from Central Plains, coupled with the Worship of Buddhism. The pagoda is, therefore, mainly solid tight tiles tower that cannot be boarded; the base and body of the tower were richly decorated with Buddhist themes, with gorgeous and magnificent appearance. The new and the old aesthetic ideas collided intensively in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Influenced by the ethical culture, rational constraints gradually become rigid conservatism, making official buildings more institutional, with neat and clear Axis. The architecture has turned into a cultural explanation of an ethical image. Influenced by the new aesthetic culture, such as the more free aesthetic concepts "Only Love" and "Innocence Idea," new opportunities for construction are created. Rather than reflecting the innovative architectural forms, it has reflected on the transformation of architectural details, people aggressively pursue complicated decoration while continuing to improve architectural forms. As a result, buildings are becoming aesthetical and artificial. In a word, the architectural modeling in Ming and Qing Dynasties has experienced little change while the details have become more complicated and gorgeous.Chinese pagoda has close relation with temple. Before Sui and Tang dynasties, towers are the centre of the buildings. This is true both to Indian and Western China temple pagoda and Chinese inland pavilion pagoda. The pagoda is always built in the center of the temple, that is, the building of the pagoda is the building of the temple. The layout style with the pagoda in the centre and surrounded with affiliated buildings is the requirement from Buddhism and the demand from believers worship, revealing the sanctity of pagoda as well. But while demonstrating sanctity, the China inland pagoda reveals its worldly feature, which is mainly represented by the main buildings of the axis and circulated with affiliated buildings. After Sui and Tang dynasties, the Chinese religion has developed, advocating "Supplementary Biography of Buddhism, with no words. Right to the heart, enlightment." Especially its belief on the insight into "enlightment" has thoroughly disillusioned the believers worship on Buddhist texts and Buddha. Thus, pagoda, as a symbol of Buddha, lost its sanctity as well. And it is gradually removed from the centre of the temple, standing beside or behind a temple and even out of the temple. Meanwhile, temples have become the central buildings on the axis. In this way, the sanctity of pagoda gradually disappeared while its worldly feature gradually increased.Chinese temple is a garden like layout, as a result, Chinese pagoda has a close relationship with gardens. In India, the pagoda is the center building of a monastery garden and is ultra-secular and sacred. Flowers and fruits are primarily used as offerings and monks’food here. After being imported to China, with the enhancement of aesthetic nature and the flourish of royal gardens and private gardens in Wei and Jin Dynasties, while pagoda is still sacred, the flowers and fruits are no longer regarded as a simple offering, but as a strong aesthetic implication. Stupa temple at this time is located in the centre of the garden. The sacred shape and aesthetic decoration of the temple have direct influence on the hearts of believers and pilgrims, giving them a strong spiritual shock, enhancing the strength and aesthetic force. The aesthetic qualities of the garden make a supplement to religion, making it easy for people to understand religion and accept it. With the widespread of residential temple and mountain temple, pagoda’s body and location were limited, and gradually became a fundamental layout factors when constructing a garden. In Ming and Qing Dynasties, the ruling class purposely integrated pagoda and royal garden, making pagoda an important factor in the layout of Chinese garden landscape.Chinese ancient pagoda, especially the pavilion-style tower is the best explanation image of Chinese architecture culture, representing the aesthetic and cultural characteristics of Chinese pavilion:huge, majestic, and dignified, which has turned the pavilion into the best platform for the Chinese ruling class to flaunt their wealth, status, and a high place to reach immortal. With the widespread penetration of Confucian ethical culture, such pavilions have increasingly become realistic, secular worldly, while the Taoist Immortal thought gives pavilions its super immortality where worldly man become immortal. Therefore, pavilion in the Qin and Han dynasties have an aesthetic culture implication of both amusing man and God. And the Chinese pagoda shares the same meaning in Southern and Northern Dynasties. It is the primal cultural function of Chinese ancient pagoda as well. The pagoda was built in large-scale in Wei and Jin Dynasties, reflecting intellectuals’entertainment needs of amusing God and satisfying their Buddhist belief, the pursuit of a detached life and praying for blessings. Its light and elegant style reflects these intellectuals pursuit of blending lively life and natural beauty, so as to satisfy their free-spirited soul in the interaction of heart and physical objects.From the perspective of aesthetic culture, the Chinese ancient pagoda has mainly three features:mystery, secularity and beauty. Mystery is a continuing feature inherited from Indian pagoda, including three aspects:first, built for advocating Buddhist principles; second, decorated by Buddhist theme; third, religious implication in the layout. Secularity is the crucial feature distinguishing Chinese pagoda from Indian pagoda. By way of the mystery power of pagoda, practical functions are achieved, such as climbing high to watch far, observing enemies so as to keep alert in war times, supplementing Fengshui and revital Wenhua and so on. These features are a manifestation of China’s secular culture and its worldly application:secularity and practicality on the appearance of pagoda. The beauty of Chinese aesthetic culture is also represented in Chinese ancient pagoda by its stability, its beautiful shape and rhythmic beauty and the beauty of the building material, the layout and its curve and so on.更多还原