【作者】 徐学标；

【导师】 胡新生；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中国古代史， 2014， 博士

【摘要】 本文由“史官主书研究”与“秦书八体研究”两大部分构成。“史官主书研究”重在说明“主书”是史官的基本职能；“秦书八体研究”重在逐个解决“秦书八体”中各体名实问题。尽管两部分主要研究、解决的问题各不相同,然二者之间却存在着非常密切的联系。其中,“史官主书研究”所得出的结论——“主书是史官的基本职能”,是研究“秦书八体”的前提基础；而“秦书八体”中各体名实问题的解决,则可进一步坐实“主书是史官的基本职能”这一结论。近世以来,史官文化的研究一直受到学者们的重视。大家普遍认为,中国学术以史官文化为根本渊薮,史官文化博大精深,内涵丰富。而史官文化与史官职能又有着密不可分的关系：史官是史官文化的创造者,史官职能决定了史官文化的性质与内容。刘知几《史通》谓：“史官之作,肇自黄帝,备于周室,名目既多,职务咸异。”所司繁庶是史官职能的一大特色。史官职能虽多,然作为其基本职能的却只会有一种,这种基本职能是不同职司、不同名目的史官之所以为“史”,之所以能够统称为“史”的根本原因,是各类史官的共通职能。“史官主书研究”所主要解决的,就是这种史官的基本职能问题。该问题的研究对于我们全面了解不同类型、不同名目史官相互之间的联系与区别,深入而准确地把握史官文化产生及发展、演变的内在机制与基本脉络,都具有十分重要的理论与现实意义。龚自珍《古史钩沉论》谓：“史之外无有语言焉,史之外无有文字焉。”从史官与文字的关系来分析,史官的基本职能只会是与文字的应用有关。而文字的应用则包含有“主书”与“主文”两个方面的内容。那么,作为史官基本职能的到底是什么,是“主书”,还是“主文”,亦或是二者的综合呢?“张家山汉简”《史律》的出土,为我们研究史官基本职能提供了最为原始、最为真实、最为直接的论据材料——《史律》规定汉初史学僮所考课的两项内容：“十五篇”与“秦书八体”,就是为“史”者所应当具备的基本业务职能。“史官主书研究”,首先对研究的对象“史官”作出了明确界定,将史官区分为“五史”与“府史”两大类,进而分析了史官与文字的关系,并将文字的应用析分为“主书”与“主文”两个方面,以此配合“张家山汉简”《史律》中有关史学僮课试内容的记载,论证得出了“主书是史官的基本职能”这一结论—《史籀篇》的字书性质,以及“秦书八体”的书体性质,反证了“主书”是史官的基本职能。其中,将《史律》用之于对史官基本职能问题的论证,是该部分的核心内容。“秦书八体”是指通行于秦代的大篆、小篆、刻符、虫书、摹印、署书、殳书、隶书等八种书体。其名始见于许慎《说文解字·序》,然许慎也只是对这八体之“数”与“名”,进行了简单罗列,对于八体中各体的具体所指、用途、得名原因等,未做任何展开说明。历来治《说文》者,对此亦是诉讼纷纭,莫衷一是。近世以来,随着秦汉文字资料的不断出土面世,以及中国早期书法史、文字演变史、文化教育史等研究的日趋深入,“秦书八体”相应的也成为了学者们关注的一个热点问题。其中,既有对“秦书八体”进行宏观性系统研究者,也有对“秦书八体”中的某几种书体进行对比研究者,而更多的则是对“秦书八体”中的某一种书体进行单独研究。纵观以往诸家所论,发觉他们在论证方法上,均存在一个共同的缺憾,即过多措意于“秦书八体”中各体之间的“名实”差异,而忽略了对“八体并举”的产生年代,以及“秦书八体”性质、用途等的关注,突出表现为没有将“秦书八体”与“史官职能”结合起来进行研究。按《说文解字·序》、《汉书·艺文志》及“张家山汉简”《史律》所载,作为秦及汉初出现的“秦书八体”,是史学僮的两项必修内容之一,而史学僮必修的两项内容构成了史官的基本职能——“主书”,由此决定了“史官主书”与“秦书八体”之间,具有了天然的不可分割的对应关系,我们足可以从史官的“主书”职能入手,对“秦书八体”中各体名实进行一番深入、细致的专项研究。从史官的“主书”职能来分析,有关“秦书八体”的诸多传统成说皆有可商之处。篆书：历来论及篆书名实者,无不以秦《泰山刻石》小篆为标准字样而求篆“名”之由来,实际上这种做法,在方法论上是站不住脚的。因为刻石在汉之前只是偶尔为之,非官方一般用字范围：据金其桢《中国碑文化》考证,始皇时期总共立了九块记功刻石,西汉碑石也仅仅只有十余块。秦及汉初政府断然不会仅仅为了这偶尔一用的碑石,而规定全国的史学僮每年都要学习刻石文字；刻符：以《阳陵虎符》、《杜虎符》等兵符上的文字为刻符之正宗,几成定论,实际上这种观点也是值得商榷的。因为兵符是一种数量极少(每个朝代最多制造三百余枚),用途郑重的特殊信物,一般史官根本无法接触到它(能够接触到它的一般是帝王与郡国守相),更谈不上制作虎符,在虎符上刻字。秦及汉初政府要求全国的史学僮都要学习这种穷其一生都很难接触到的兵符文字,毫无道理；摹印：对摹印的认识,以唐兰的“规摹”之说影响最大：“摹印是就印的大小,文字的多少,笔画的繁简,位置的疏密,用规摹的方法画出来的。”然而,一方面“摹成”的印文是反字,任何时代的政府都不会将一种反字作为特殊书体,要求全国的史学僮学习；另一方面,印章制作是中央所属少府的职责,能够到少府机构参与印文制作的史官毕竟是极少数(汉制定员六人),秦及汉初政府不可能仅仅为了这极少数史官的职务所需,而规定全国的史学僮都要学习如何摹写印稿；虫书：以往学者大多都把出自汉以前尚方工技之手的装饰性花体字,当作虫书。实际上,无论是从书体作者,还是从幡信功用而言,虫书都不可能是装饰性花体字；署书：徐锴《说文系传》引萧子良说：“汉高六年萧何所定,以题苍龙、白虎二阙。”即是说署书是用来题写宫阙之名的。汉初与民生息、无为而治,不可能有很多宫阙需要题署。言萧何为此专门创造一种书体,并规定每年全国的史学僮都要学习它,很显然与汉初社会现实不符；殳书：以殳书为“铭于戈戟之文”,是当今学术界的普遍认识。然秦立国之初,即颁行销兵令：“收天下之兵,聚之咸阳,销锋鍉,铸以为金人十二,以弱天下之民。”将兵器制造权收归中央,并置尚方令掌管兵器制造事宜,尚方之下又设若卢和考工室负责兵器制造的具体工作；汉初,中央所属少府下设考工令室,负责制造弓弩刀铠等兵器。而按《汉书·艺文志》、《说文解字·序》及“张家山汉简”《史律》所载,秦及汉初除全国课试第一名的史学僮到中央所属尚书机构担任卒史外,其余为史者一律都到地方郡县去做令史或佐史。这些地方郡县的史官几乎无人能够接触到兵器制作事宜,倘若殳书果真是指“铭于戈戟之文”,那么绝大多数的史学僮根本没有必要学习这种将来用不到的技能。“秦书八体研究”,首先对“秦书八体”最初产生的年代、作用、性质等宏观问题进行了综合论证,得出了“秦书八体,是与‘史官主书’的基本内容相对应的,以官府日常行政用字为主的八种主要官方用字,是‘史官主书’的主要书体内容”这一结论,以此作为根本出发点,对“秦书八体”之各体名实问题进行了逐个研究。认为八体中的“篆书”(包括大篆、小篆)与“隶书”是适用于简册的一般官府文书用字。篆、隶之名皆相对而出,“篆”为“掾”之同源后起字,“掾”是秦代专司文字工作的政府吏员,是官方文案的主要责任者,因这些文案,大多都要直接呈报给始皇帝及中央所属机构,故规定必须以正体来书写,篆书之名也即因此而起。作为与篆书之名同出的“隶书”,也只能是因其使用的对象为“徒隶”而得名：八体中的“刻符”,是指“竹质符”上的墨书文字,而非一般史官接触不到的兵符上的刻铸铭文。刻符之“刻”,并非指的是用刀在符信上锲刻文字,而是指“竹质符”上的“刻齿”；八体中的“虫书”,用于书写幡信。幡信的功能,决定了这种书体不可能是装饰性花体字。虫书之“虫”是指狭义上的蝮虫,之所以称“虫”,是因为这种文字线条屈曲蜿蜒,形如抽象之蝮虫；八体中的“摹印”,是指官方印信及封泥上的文字,因这种文字用于摹写印面,故而命名为摹印；八体中的“署书”,是指用以封检题署、悬法,及署门户等的文字。这种文字在风格上与通常情况下的官方用字并没有本质性的差异,只不过其字形一般都写得较大、风格较庄重而已；八体中的“殳书”,并非是指“兵器铭文”及“刚卯、栒邑权等殳形器物上的文字”,在秦及汉初尚未以“觚”命名字书文字之前,殳书最大的可能性是对字书文字的命名。同时,从史官的“主书”职能来分析,传统观点以为史书中所出现的“秦书八体”与秦统一全国后实行的“书同文”政策相矛盾,以及今所见秦代文字资料与“秦书八体”之名不符等一系列问题,也会涣然冰解。因为,“秦书八体”是与“史官主书”主要内容相对应的,不同场合下的官方用字,并非是指这八种书体的文字构造各自不同；“秦书八体”是“史官主书”的主要书体内容,并非是说秦代总共有这八种书体,也并非秦代所有的官方用字全部能够涵盖在这八体之中。更多还原

【Abstract】 The thesis consisted two parts which were "The study of the principal writing of the secretarial officers" and "The research of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty". Part I "The study of the principal writing of the secretarial officers" emphasized in the main tasks of secretarial officers which was "principally writing". Part Ⅱ "The research of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty" were focused on the correcting of the terms of these eight writing styles. Even though the study of two parts were totally different, but they had the connection to each others, especially the results of the "The study of the principal writing of the secretarial officers" showed the "Writing" was the main task of the secretarial officer and it was the premise of the basic of study of "eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty". From the other hand, the correcting of the terms of these eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty was proved the main task of the secretarial officer was "Writing".Recently, the scholars were interested on the study of the culture of the Chinese ancient secretarial officers, as the culture of the Chinese ancient secretarial officers was profound and rich in content, most of them believed that the culture of this group was the hotbed of China academic. The culture and the main task of the secretarial officer had a close relationship, which was the officers created the culture of the Chinese ancient secretarial officers and the main task of the officers determined the nature and content of the culture of the Chinese ancient secretarial officers. There were lots of duties of the secretarial officer, but there was a one main duty which was "Written task", and no matter how the officer was in different department and title of the post. The study of the secretarial officers would give a comprehensive understanding of variety types and post titles of secretarial officers, their connection and differences, at the same time to have a clear image of the generation, development and evolvement of the culture of secretarial officers.The basic tasks of the secretarial officers were connected to writing scripts, the writing scripts was consisted "principally writing" and "principally texts writing", but what was their main duty:"principally writing" or "principally texts writing" or both duties? The unearth and discovery of the Han bamboo slips of Zhang Jia Shan,"History of the law" provided the most original, most authentic, the most direct evidence of my study, which had showed that the examination of secretarial officers in the beginning of Han Dynasty contained two parts,"15Chapters" and eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty, and this was the basic knowledge for a secretarial officer.In the Part I "The study of the principally writing of the secretarial officers"Firstly the study was the definition of secretarial officers, the connection of the two categories of the secretarial officers,"Five secretarial officers"("五史")and "Home secretarial officers" with the writing scripts. Their writing scripts could divide to two areas which were "principally writing" and "principally texts". From the above analyses, I have found out that the contents of the Han bamboo slips of Zhang Jia Shan,"History of the law" had proved that the written task was the main duty of the secretarial officers and the writing scripts of" Shi zhou pian" and the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty were the basic knowledge for a secretarial officer. The "History of the law" was the core content of this part.The eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty were large seal, small seal, engraving symbol on bamboo sticks writing scripts, banner writings script, lettering on ancient imperial seals’ writing style of the eight writing styles, board writing style, weapons or objects inscription style and Clerical script writing style. These terms appeared in the preface of "Analytical Dictionary of Characters language"(《说文解字·序》). But the author, Xu Shen, did not clearly mention or elaborate the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty, such as the term of the styles’referring and how did it come from, the usage of the style, he just mentioned that the order and term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty. Even though, there were numbers of discussions of the term of eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty, unfortunately there was end up with no conclusion. Currently, there were a lot of unearth and discovery of writing scripts of Dynasty Qin and Han, and a lot of studies in the early history of Chinese calligraphy, the evolution of the writing history, cultural history and educational history; these eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty become a research highlight. Among of them are doing macroscopic system research, some are comparing several writing scripts, and more researchers are doing one of the writing script research only.Throughout the past studies, I found out that most the studies focused on the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty, while ignoring the "Eight writing styles" generation era, features and functioning, the most obvious mistake is the researchers do not combine the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty and the duties of the secretarial officer to do a detail study. According to the preface of "Analytical Dictionary of Characters language","Han shu yi wen zhi" and the Han bamboo slips of Zhang Jia Shan,"History of the law", which had showed that the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty was part of the study of secretarial officers in Qin Dynasty and in the beginning of Han Dynasty. In the future, this would be a part of the profession and the writing skills gained would be fully connecting to the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty. From the writing skills of the secretarial officers, we could go further study of the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty.From the analyses of the duty of the "principally writing" of the secretarial officers, there were still a room to discuss the traditional research findings of the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty.1.Seal scriptsMost of the term of seal script was from the small seal script of the "Tai Mountain’s Steles" of Qin Dynasty, actually this is not a correct way to get the term of the seal script, as before Han Dynasty there were not much of steles established and did not engraved it frequently. According to Jin Qizhen,"The Chinese cultural monument", during Emperor Shi Huang Di, he established a total of nine Merits stone blocks. During Western Han Dynasty, the Emperor built up10steles only. For this reason, the government of Dynasty Qin and the beginning of Dynasty Han might not request all the secretarial officers had to learn the writing script of the stele.2.Engraving symbol on bamboo writing scriptThe term of this script was taken from "Yangning tiger-shaped engraving symbol","Du tiger-shaped engraving symbol" etc engraving symbol. It is also incorrect to do so, as the quantity of the engraving symbol was so few (each Dynasty would have300pieces), it’s mainly using in special condition and the secretarial officers hardly could have chance to use it (those who able to use it was the king and the prime minister.), so that the making and engraved of the engraving symbol was so few. For the same reason again, the government of Dynasty Qin and the beginning of Dynasty Han might not request all the secretarial officers had to learn the engraving symbol on bamboo writing scripts.3.Lettering on ancient imperial seals’writing style of the eight writing stylesThe term of ancient imperial seals’writing style was mainly influent by Tang Lan’s theorem. As we know that the tracing of the seal carving are opposite side of the scripts, I believed that any Dynasty of the government would not treat this opposite side of the script as special scripts and request the secretarial officers to learn it. On the other hand, making imperial seals was the responsibility of the financial department of the Federal, the secretarial officers was hardly had a chance to participate, if there so there were very few people could have chance to participate, for example in Han Dynasty there were only6people could participate the making of imperial seals’. Therefore, the both Dynasties of the government might not request all the secretarial officers had to learn the writing script.4.The banner writings scriptMost of the scholars believed that the banner writing script is a decorated and curlicue script. Actually, the banner writings script was not as said so, as from the functioning of script itself was an engraving symbol; this was proved that it was not the decorated script.5.The board writing styleThe board writing style was mainly in house or the palace. But during the beginning of the Dynasty Han, there were no houses or palaces were built. Xiao He who created f the term of board writing style was incorrect, as there was not the reality in the beginning of the Han Dynasty.6.The weapons or objects inscription styleNowadays, the scholars believe that the "殳书" is the scripts which are engraving on weapons. But during the Qin Dynasty, there was an announcement of extermination of weapons, its’meant that there was no weapon allowed to possess for the people and the right of making weapons was back to the federal government. The government set up Shang Fang department to responsible to the making of the weapons, under the department there were2divisions which were Ruo Lu and Kao Gong were authorized to make the weapons. In the beginning of Han Dynasty, Kao gong ling shi which was under financial department of federal government was authorized to make the weapons. According to preface of "Analytical Dictionary of Characters language","Han shu yi wen zhi" and the Han bamboo slips of Zhang Jia Shan,"History of the law", the first place of the examination of the secretarial officers during Dynasty Qin and the beginning of Dynasty Han would be appointed a job in the federal government, other than that would be sent to the state be an Announcement written officer or assistant of secretarial officer. Those who sent to state as a secretarial officers would not have chance to participate the making of the weapons, so that the saying that the "殳书" is the scripts which are engraving on weapons is incorrect, as most of the secretarial officers did not need to learn the skill which they would not have chance to use it in the future.In the Part Ⅱ "The research of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty".Firstly, the study of the emergence, function and features of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty and the result of the study is the contents of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty and the principally writing of the secretarial officers are connected to each other. The eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty were officially written styles of the principally writing of the secretarial officers in the government routine work. In this part, the study will be more details in the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty.Seal script (large seal and small seal) and Clerical script were used in government’s document. The term of Seal script was originally from the character "掾", and this character meant that it was the officer who worked in the secretarial department of Qin Dynasty. Most of the document would send directly to the Emperor and the federal government to read, so that the document needed to be written in the standard writing script. Since that it was written by "掾", the people named this writing script "篆书"(seal script. The term of Clerical script was originally come from the character "徒隶”’(the slave), since that this type of script mainly used it by the slaves, so that the people named this script as "隶书”(Clerical script)。 The engraving symbol on bamboo sticks writing scripts was refer to the characters engraving on the bamboo sticks, it should not refer to the tally issued to generals as imperial authorization for troop movement in ancient China. The term of the banner writings script, if we study carefully from the functioning of script itself, it was an engraving symbol; this was proved that it was not the decorated script. Further more, the character of "虫" referred to "蝮虫”(venomous snake), the shape of the character written was buckling winds and the shape looked like this type of snake, so that people gave name of this script was "虫书”(snake-shaped script). The term of the lettering on ancient imperial seals’is referring to the writing of the governments’seal and lute. Since that people were tracing the script on the paper, so that people named this writing script is "摹印”The board writing style is referring to the script which written on the seal slips, board of the government’s building and announcement. Normally, this type of writing style would be similar to the official written style, but the characters would be slight bigger than the official written. The weapons or objects inscription style is should not refer to the writing on the weapons,刚卯and栒邑权. The term of the writing script was mainly from the shaped of the script itself.From the point of view of the duties of the secretarial officers were principally writing, therefore, we could find out the contradictory between the "One style writing script" policy of Qin Dynasty when it united the whole China and the traditional history book mentioned there were eight writing styles in Qin Dynasty. Since the analyses and the detail study of the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty and main duty of the secretarial officers, the mistake had been done of the traditional history book will be clear.Further more, the writing script materials of Qin Dynasty and the term of the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty also showed the conflict to each other. We should understand that the eight writing styles of Qin Dynasty and the duty of secretarial officers were connected to each other, the writing style mainly was according to the condition, in the different condition there was a different type of writing script. We also should not assume that there were only eight writing styles in Qin Dynasty, maybe more than expected.更多还原