【作者】 曹金娜；

【导师】 杜家骥；

【作者基本信息】 南开大学 ， 中国古代史， 2013， 博士

【摘要】 清代人口增长,社会繁荣,但也产生了一系列社会问题,其中人均占有土地日益失调。清政府推出新政摊丁入地,把原来按人头摊派的丁银改为匀入田地缴纳,使贫苦无地人民不但在经济上免除了丁银之苦。户丁编审制度的停止,使他们获得了更多的人身自由,从而加速了人口流动。清代河患严重,以黄河最著,淮河次之。每当河患之时,河北、河南、江苏、山东等省份灾民沿运河下江南就食。漕运绵延几千里,河北、山东一带运河水浅、地形崎岖,需要大量短纤、驳船工人,大量游民加入到漕运工作中。康熙三十五年,为了维持漕运的正常运转,清政府改为每船佥运军一人,其余九名雇佣水手,以协助漕运,从此漕粮运输中雇佣水手制度化。清代基层漕运组织日益增强。每年佥选旗丁领运,再加上雇佣的头舵、水手,整个漕运基层组织人口不下十万,及临时雇佣的剥浅、头纤等人。漕运水手每年运送漕粮及回空,途中多险要之地,漕船的顺利航行需水手间相互合作。加之,运丁苛扣侵蚀及不法之徒欺侮侵扰,水手内部出现了互助互济性组织。明末清初之际,罗教在水手内流传。往来回空水手借居罗教庵堂吃素念经,日久相率皈依罗教。罗教与互助性的漕运水手组织相结合以一种民间宗教组织形式在水手中发展。雍乾年间,漕运水手组织内罗教组织出现分化。乾隆中叶,随着罗教庵堂转移到老堂船上,罗教组织内帮会权利系统的建立,漕运水手罗教组织已具备秘密会社的主要特征。罗教组织分化出的小宗派,相互排斥,争夺生计,在整个运河水系形成了对峙局面。为优恤运军,弥补薪资不足,清政府允许漕船在重运、回空之际,携带一定数额的免税货物,称之为土宜。漕船运输土宜对运河沿岸城市的繁荣起到一定作用,有利于南北物资的流通、平抑京师物价,促进了国内的经济繁荣、政治稳定。为了获得更大利益,漕船违背了政府对土宜数额、种类的限制。老官(漕运水手行帮水手之首领称为老官)视漕船为己业,为了通过漕船携带土宜获得更多利益,不同船帮间为了争驾漕船而发生械斗。漕船水手的私货运销活动成了水手行帮的内聚力。清中叶后漕运系统弊端丛生,漕务各级官吏,皆籍其参与之便,从中贪污索贿。为了应付各方勒索,运军不得不致力于私货贸易,致使私货贸易更加盛行。清中后期,漕运水手行帮力量扩张,促进了漕船走私活动。在各方合作下,漕船私货贸易逐渐形成了庞大的走私网络。太平天国运动与黄河铜瓦厢改道使得漕运中断,运丁、水手问题成为各方争论的话题之一。到太平天国时期,漕运水手问题真正浮现出来。水手除了因失业滋事之外,还纷纷加入到其他各种社会势力中。这些社会势力主要的经济来源以贩运私盐为主。从而,失业之水手又回到昔日私货贸易网络中去了。他们今日之贸易对象,仍是昔日之私货贸易对象。河运停止,失业水手脱离漕运系统,流转各地的成员又回到昔日人际网络中去。漕运制度为漕运水手行帮的出现提供了赖以生存的制度基础,漕运系统之弊端与水手之生活境地促进了水手行帮的发展,壮大行帮势力。政府为了稳定漕运秩序,对运军、水手进行补贴,允许携带土宜,因此私货贸易产生。漕船私货贸易数额的增加,在一定程度上强化了水手行帮的发展,水手行帮的发展又促进了私货贸易的进行。清末,漕粮河运停止,水手被遣散。漕运水手行帮组织得以维系并进一步衍生出许多帮会组织。为了维持帮会组织的正常运行,失业水手又从事昔日私货贸易,继续维持昔日的人际网络与行为模式。更多还原

【Abstract】 The population growth of the Qing dynasty was a manifestation of social prosperity, but it also brought a series of problems. The severity of these problems was deepened by the abnormal development of social land tenure. The government launched a series of new policies, such as the Tandingrumu policy, sharing poll taxation into fields. Poor and landless people were exempt from the suffering of poll taxation. Furthermore, due to the stop of population management system, they got more rights to personal liberty, thus speeding up the flow of population. Yellow river was the most flooding river in Qing dynasty, and the next is Huaihe River. Whenever there was a flood, the victims from Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong and other provinces would try to make a living down south along the canal, or state highway. Water transport of grain lasted thousands of miles. Canals were shallow and rugged in Hebei and Shandong province. A lot of barge workers were required. As a result, a large number of homeless people were added to the water transport work. In1691, In order to maintain normal water transport, government sent one transport soldier per ship to assist water transport. The other nine were employed sailors. Since then, sailor employment in water transport was institutionalized.Civic participation in the basic water transport organization in the Qing dynasty was growing. Bannerman who selected as leader, together with the employed first helmsman and sailors, the entire water transport basic organizations were no less than100,000people. In addition, there were temporary employed boat trackers. The actual number of the canal water transport team maintained at more than100,000. Water transport sailors delivered canal grain and came back through many danger zones. The success of the transport ships sailing required mutual cooperation among sailors. Due to transport soldiers’erosion and criminal’s intrusion, mutual aid organizations emerged among the sailors. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, Luo religion spread among sailors. Sailors lived in the churches of Luo religion, eating vegetarian and chanting. They were converted to Luo religion over time. The Luo religion and mutual assistance water transport sailor organizations which combined in a civil form of religious organizations developed among sailors. During the Yongzheng and Qianlong period, Luo religious organizations within water transport sailor organizations became divided. In the middle of the Qianlong period, churches of Luo Religious transferred to old boats. The gang rights system inside Luo religious organizations had established. Luo religious organizations inside water transport sailors already have the main features of the secret societies. Differentiated from Luo religious organizations, small sectarian were mutually exclusive, forming confrontation in the entire Canal area.To make up for the lack of salary for the favor of shipped army, The Qing government allowed transport ships to carry a certain amount of duty-free goods, which called the Tuyi when re-shipped. Transportation of transport ships played a role in the prosperity of the city along the canal, which was conducive to the north-south flow of supplies, and reduced the price of capital. It’s beneficial to domestic economic prosperity and political stability. In order to obtain greater benefits, transport ships ignored government restrictions on the amount and type. From the perspective of gaining profit through shipping, the old officer considered transport ships as his own industry. It’s not a surprise that different gangs fight for transport ships. Activities of Transport ship sailors’ smuggled goods to some extent increased the cohesion of the sailors’ gang. After mid-Qing dynasty, water transport system was seriously flawed. There were corruptions and bribes among officials at all levels. In order to cope with the extortion, shipped army had to commit to the contraband trade, resulting in the contraband trade became more prosperous. In the late Qing period, the expansion of the water transport sailor forces played an important role in promoting the smuggling activities.The Taiping rebellion and the Yellow River diversion made canal stop an inevitable trend. Transport soldiers and sailors became one of the controversial topics of the society. During the period of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, water transport sailors’ problems really emerged. The sailors not only stirred up troubles because of unemployment, but also participated in the reactionary political forces. Unemployed sailors joined local forces, and its economy depended mainly on trafficking private salt. To a certain extent, the unemployment sailors went back to the contraband trade network. They still traded with the same old target as before. When the river transport stopped, unemployment sailors were exiled from the water transport system. Wondering members went back to the old social network.Water transport system provides the basis for the survival of the emergence of water transport sailors’ gangs. The drawbacks of the water transport system and the sailor’s living environment promoted the development of the sailors and the growth of gang forces. In order to stabilize the water transport order, government subsidies transport military and sailors while allowing goods, resulting in the emergence of contraband trade. The increase in the amount of the transport ship contraband trades, to some extent, strengthened the development of sailors’ gangs. Sailors’ gang also promoted the development of the contraband trade. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, water transport stopped, and sailors were dismissed. Water transport sailor gang organizations had been maintained and further spawned many gang organizations. In order to maintain the normal operation of the gang organization, unemployed sailors engaged in the old contraband trade, and maintained the social network and behavior patterns of the past.更多还原