【作者】 孙攀河；

【导师】 易惠莉；

【作者基本信息】 华东师范大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2013， 博士

【副题名】近代日本（1853-1895）对华外交思想背景的一个探讨

【摘要】 有“近代日本之父”之称的福泽谕吉的中国观,在近代中日两国关系发展变化过程中,不断调整和发展。在其激烈变化的中国观背后,有着他一以贯之的思想基础和形成机制。本文重点探讨不同时期福泽中国观的具体展开,以及其中国观与历史事实之间的交互影响。本论文共分十三章,主要内容如下。第一章主要考察福泽谕吉幼年的生长环境,其所接受的儒学、洋学教育,以及爱动手勤思考的性格特征,对其中国观的形成产生的影响等内容。福泽幼年艰辛的生长环境,以及父母、兄长、师友等的影响,造就他在学术态度上比较重视以西洋自然科学为代表的“实学”,而相对轻视对日常生活没有直接收益的“虚学”。福泽少年时代接受的儒学教育,不仅将福泽塑造成一个学养深厚的知识分子,还在相当长的时间内给他提供了理解日本,了解中国以及世界的基本框架。这不仅表现在他文笔流畅,说理层层展开又平白易懂的汉文风格的散文文体方面,更体现在他思想深处朱子学的思维结构方面。正是因为具备这种思维结构,才使得他在开始接受《万国公法》中的国际法理念时,倾向于自然法的理解。第二章考察了福泽在日本幕末时期的三次海外经历。福泽的海外经历是他走出国门,睁眼看世界继而确定学习西方文明的重要转机。本文主要考察了他海外经历中,与现实中国的邂逅及对其思想的影响。福泽对当时正在发生的第二次鸦片战争、太平天国运动、林则徐等事件或人物的理解有别于同行的其他日本人,这种区别正是他思想中对日本自我认同的开始。在福泽的思想构造中欧美诸国与中国同样都是作为他者存在的,但又各自发挥不同的作用。在“中国”逐渐成为日本应该克服的对象的同时,“西方”也渐渐成为日本应该奋斗的目标。应该指出,这两个概念在相当大的程度上都是福泽为了近代日本的独立与发展而建构出来的。第三章通过对日本幕末至明治政权交替之时,福泽代表作《唐人往来》、《西洋事情》等的分析,考察他在幕末攘夷和开国风潮下,复杂政治局势中的政治主张,及其与中国的关系。此一时期福泽接触到的有关中国的信息,绝大部分是通过欧美诸国过滤后的信息,不可避免地带有欧美中心的立场,强调各自国家利益的正当性,否认对中国发动鸦片战争、掠夺利权等事件的非正义性。受这些西方中心论观点的影响,福泽此时的中国观是一种中华帝国面临风雨飘摇,正摇摇欲坠的时局论观点。由于福泽不加辨析地站在欧美中心的立场,因此他不能理解以林则徐为代表的中华民族奋起反抗英法诸国的入侵,保家卫国的正义性,并误认太平天国运动为单纯的攘夷运动。在第四章中,本文分析了福泽向幕府提交的《建议书》等文本中表达的有关其内政、外交的思想。福泽将日本国内的攘夷派与中国的太平天国等同视之,并建议幕府当局参照清政府的处理方式,甘冒向英法等国借兵使国家主权受损的风险,也要镇压反幕府势力。这反映了此时福泽对幕府的认识,恰如其对清政府的认识一般,充满了随时面临灭亡的危机感。此外在这一时期他对丁韪良翻译的《万国公法》的接受尤其值得注目。由于丁韪良的宗教情操,以及翻译过程中中国入的帮助,使得《万国公法》一书倾向于用自然法的理解来解释国际法的精神。这种解释方法与朱子学思想之间具有同构性,因此比较容易为东亚儒学圈的人们理解。而《万国公法》在日本的初期接受过程也恰如中国,福泽此时也是这样理解国际法的。本文第五章重点考察福泽名著《劝学篇》中其启蒙思想与朱子学之间的同构关系,以及分析此一阶段强调国际正义、国际道德的福泽国际观与中国观等。福泽在《劝学篇》中阐发的启蒙思想,大致可以用“自由”、“平等”两个关键词说明,而且这种理念贯穿个人、国家之间,简洁质朴又充满浪漫的理想主义,是明治启蒙思想的最佳代表。这一时期福泽使用这种带有浓厚朱子学理念框架的思想,积极发表了自己对日本内政外交的看法。第六章中,重点分析福泽另一代表作《文明论概略》中体现的世界观、亚洲观,以及他阐发的中日文化比较论等内容。福泽思想此时正从具有理想主义色彩的启蒙主义,向具有现实主义色彩的国家主义转变过程中。因此他的文明论当中,既有对自由、平等、科学等普世价值的肯定,也包含将这些本来是人类文明发展的终极目标,矮化成以日本—国之独立为目的的手段这一巨大矛盾。福泽的中国文化一元论与日本文化二元论的中日文化比较论,确实对日本国民树立学习西洋文明的信心起到巨大鼓舞作用,也成为时至今日日本人对中国认识的思维范式,影响深远。但我们也应该清醒认识到这个观点也是福泽为自己的理论而建构的观点,并非真实。在第七章中,本文分析了福泽对发生于1874年近代中日两国的首次军事对抗,即日本借口琉球渔民遇害出兵侵略台湾这一事件的看法。此事件以日本政府悍然出兵侵略台湾为始,以清政府赔款敷衍了局。对此,福泽谕吉与日本国内激昂的民族主义情绪相反,用冷冰冰的口吻计算有关战争的经济损益,得出日本出兵台湾得不偿失的结论。据此他主张应该利用对外冲突事件解决日本国内经济发展、教育等问题,并主张日本外交的重点在西洋诸国,与“亚洲无关”。此一时期福泽中国观表现为冷淡的无视,但其背后却是对日本经济孱弱下贸然挑起对外危机的忧虑。此外在这一事件中,福泽也逐渐坚定了以对外危机为手段解决日本国内问题的思维定势,这种现实主义的马基雅弗利主义的方法,逐渐成为其后福泽中国观的主要特征。第八章中,本文主要考察在日本国内自由民权运动勃发后官民对立加剧之时,福泽中国观的变化与其国内政治观点间的关系。此一时期福泽出版了《通俗国权论》、《通俗民权论》、《民情一新》、《时事小言》等书,放弃启蒙时期追求自由平等的理想,转而主张国权优于民权,并有意夸大日本的对外危机,主张通过挑起对外战争鼓舞国民士气达到“官民调和”。他否定“万国公法”中的国际正义,提出崇尚武力对外侵略的“东洋政略”,逐渐转变为兼具亚洲主义的国家主义者。恰在此时朝鲜开化派人士开始接近福泽,在指导朝鲜开化派的过程中,福泽以日本文明发展的自信,开始主张日本作为“东洋盟主”的东亚战略,完全变为亚洲主义者。本文第九章主要考察至1882年朝鲜壬午军乱时期福泽的中国观。壬午军乱前福泽认为日本是亚洲诸国文明的代表,应该向海外驻军以武力统帅亚洲国家,这种自信背后有对中国的轻视。因此事变发生之始,福泽与民权派等思想家、政治家不同,发表了态度强硬的文章。但壬午军乱中清政府敏捷灵活的应对使得福泽对中国的看法发生根本性转变,一改对中国老大帝国的认识,认为中国甚至是军事强大的文明国家。因此福泽开始将中国视为日本的竞争对手,开始加紧对朝鲜的影响与渗透。本文第十章主要考察朝鲜壬午军乱至甲申政变过程前后,在中日韩三国国际关系变化下福泽中国观的变化、动摇等内容。壬午后福泽开始实施自己的“朝鲜经略”,他影响并指导朝鲜的开化派人士,派出自己的学生指导朝鲜政局,并联合民权派激进势力为朝鲜开化派发动的甲申政变提供武器等,积极活动。朝鲜的甲申政变在清政府驻军的干预下,以“三日天下”黯然收场,这也宣告福泽的朝鲜经略以失败告终。失望之余福泽发表《脱亚论》,主张日本应该脱离亚洲,并用西方列强的暴力方法对付中国与朝鲜。仅从“脱亚论”来看,此时的福泽又从亚洲主义者变为帝国主义者。甲申政变后至甲午战争大约十年间的福泽中国观,在对华外交协调论和对抗论之间反复摇摆变化,本文第十一章主要分析其此一时期中国观的背景与特征。甲申后福泽发表了《脱亚论》,但他并没有真正放弃亚洲主义。1885年英国强占巨文岛事件发生后,面对可能的英俄冲突,中日关系出现暂时的和平协调时期。此时福泽也开始主张对华协调,强调日中贸易往来,以及学习中文等事项的重要性和必要性。但1886年北洋水师访日期间发生的“长崎事件”刺激了福泽对中国的敏感神经,促使他重拾亚洲主义,向日本政府呼吁在朝鲜设立国防上的“防御线”,将朝鲜划入日本势力范围。他的主张其后以首相山县有朋在国会的演讲为标志,成为日本政府的国家战略。本文第十二章考察分析甲午战前福泽中国观与此时日本国内政治之间的关系。1889年日本颁布明治宪法并于次年召开国会,标志着近代日本天皇制国家体制基本确立。但同时自由民权运动也获得与政府斗争的合法空间,其与藩阀专制政府的矛盾冲突开始升级,官民冲突渐有不可收拾之势。对此危机,福泽增强自己“朝鲜政略”发言的力度,否定中国主张的“朝鲜属国论”.建议政府在朝鲜挑起事端,欲借外交冲突缓和国内困局。福泽此时的“朝鲜政略”彻底丧失甲申前一丝尚存的指导朝鲜步入文明国家的国际同情,完全沦为权谋数术的“以术谋国”。此时在他心目中,中国也转变为其主张的“东洋政略”的绊脚石。尤其在日朝防谷令事件交涉过程中,他多次敦促日本政府应借此挑起事端,甚至表示不惜对华一战的蛮勇。在第十三章中,本文主要考察福泽谕吉在甲午开战前后的对华言论和观点。甲午当年的1894年,发生金玉均在上海被暗杀的事件。与金玉均交往密切的福泽对中朝两国处理暗杀事件感到愤怒,开始主张对华决战。甲午开战后福泽每日登报馆发表社论,他鼓吹战争、倡议募捐、教唆日本兵掠夺杀戮至北京等,完全陷入战争狂欢；他掩盖旅顺屠杀、美化台湾占领战争、谈判期间主张高额赔款与大幅割地以使中国完全丧失报复能力等,从字面上看几近灭绝人性。他将甲午之战定义为代表文明的日本与代表野蛮的中国间的“文明与野蛮”之战,掩盖日本的不义,为日本寻找战争的“合法性”借口。甲午之战,既是福泽一生持论的文明论思想在现实中的实现,同时也宣告明治启蒙思想的终结,从此天皇制国家体制根基稳固,日本走向法西斯主义的疯狂不归之路。结束语。福泽谕吉的中国观源自其少年时接受的儒学教育,在他逐渐成长过程中通过对现实中国的了解而积累,并在中日两国关系变化中不断调整变化。由于他对中国儒学经典、历史文化等的了解,他的中国观较之其他同时代日本人更为深刻,并带有文明史观的特征。他的中国观对近代日本整体的对华认识,以及明治日本的外交政策等影响深远。更多还原

【Abstract】 Fukuzawa Yukichi is called "Father of Contemporary Japan." His views on Sino-Japan relations have been adjusted and developed through the process in contemporary history. Beneath the changing drastic views, there are his constant ideological basis and rules of formation This dissertation mainly discusses Yukichi ’s specific views on China in different periods of time and the interaction between his views on China and the historical events.This dissertation has been constituted into13chapters.The first chapter mainly focuses on the boyhood of Fukuzawa Yukichi. The formation of his views was strongly influenced by the Confucius thoughts, the Western education, and intellectual-provoking characters. The hardship of his boyhood and the influence from his parents, siblings, mentors and friends gradually formed his academic attitude. He emphasized the "practical learning" which was represented by the western natural science rather than the "unpractical learning" which was irrelevant to the daily life. The education of Confucius accepted during his youth not only cultivated him as a learned intellectual, but also provided him a basic framework to understand Japan. Chinese and the world during a long period of time. His smooth writing which had accurate layers and comprehensive Chinese style essays clearly showed that character. Furthermore, thinking patterns of Zhu Xi’s ideology also showed in his works. Hence, he tended to understand the natural law when he accepted the international principles in the International Law.The second chapter focuses on Yukichi’s3overseas experiences during Japan’s Shogun times. The overseas experiences enabled him to witness the development of the world. Thus became the turning point to learn the Western civilization. The dissertation mainly investigates the impact he experienced when he encountered a real China while he stayed in the foreign countries. Compared with other Japanese in his time. Yukichi had different perspectives upon the Second Opium War. the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement and Lin Zexu. Those distinctions became the start of the self-identification of Japan in his mind. In Yakuchi’s mind. although European countries and China were all "the other". they had different effects upon Japan. When China became the eliminated target. Western countries should be the ideal objects followed by Japan. It’s worth to point out that to the certain extent, those two concepts were raised by Yukichi for the sake of independence and development of contemporary Japan.The third chapter is a research on the works written by Yukichi. Yukichi wrote Comings and Goings of Foreigners. The Duties of Citizens of the Nation during the handover between Bakumatsu and Meiji Period. He advocated to repel the foreigners, reform the political policies, combed the relationship between Japan and China. The information about China gained by Yukichi was almost via European countries and the United States thus unavoidably had the European color. They emphasized the legitimacy of each country, denied the unjustness of the Opium War and the deprivation of rights. Influenced by the Euro-centered idea. Fukuchi believed that the throne of China was unstable. Because he backed the idea without any discrimination. he couldn’t understand the justice of Chinese defense movements represented by Lin Zexu. He thought that Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was merely a foreigner-exile movement.Chapter four analyzes the contents which were relevant to the interior and diplomatic policies in A memorial submitted by Fukuchi. He equaled the foreigner-exile movement to the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement in China. thus suggested that the government of Shogun could use the policies adopted by the Qing government-using the troops from France and the Great Britain to suppress the anti-Shogun power in the risk of damaging the state sovereignty. The idea reflects that Fukuchi’s views on the Shogun just as same as his views on the Qing government-a strong sense of crisis.Besides. Fukuchi’s acceptance of The International Law translated by William Alexander Parsons Martin (1827-1916) becomes the highlight of Chapter Four. With William’s religious belief and the help with other Chinese people during the process of translation. The International Law inclined to interpret the spirit of the international laws by using the natural laws. The way of interpretation shared a same frame with Zhu Xi’s ideology:therefore, the book could be accepted by the Eastern Asians who believed in Confucius. At the beginning, The International Law in Japan also encountered the same circumstance when it appeared in China. Fukuchi had the same view on the international law during that time.The fifth chapter mainly discusses the identical frame shared by Fukuchi’s An Encouragement of Learning and Zhu Xi’s ideology. The enlightenment of the work. international justice and international morality showed in Fukuchi’s view on the international issue and China.Fukuchi expressed his enlightening thought in An Encouragement of Learning could be summarized by two key words:"freedom" and "equality"."Freedom" and "equality" were two simple yet romantic words became the ideal among individuals, countries, could represent the enlightening spirit in Menji times. Fukuchi used the thought which embodied strong Zhu Xi’s ideology to actively express his diplomatic views.Chapter six mainly discusses another book An Outline of a Theory of Civilization which was written by Fukuchi. In the book, he expressed his views on the world. Asia and the comparative study in Sino-Japanese relationship. Fukuchi’s thought began to alternate from the enlightening idea which contained the idealism to the thought of nationalism. Therefore the huge conflict between the values such as liberty, equality and science in which he approved and the ultimate objectives of the human civilization used only as the aim of Japan’s independence occurred. The comparative theory between monism of Chinese culture and the dualism of Japanese culture encouraged Japanese to learn western civilization. It also set the profound thinking module of Japanese people toward China. But we have to clearly aware that that idea was the one which was formed to serve his theory, but not the concrete one.Chapter seven analyzes Fukuchi’s view on the first military confrontation between China and Japan in1874. Japan invaded Taiwan on the excuse of the death of a Loochoo fisherman. The invasion started from invading Taiwan and ended by making compensation by the Qing government. For this specific event, on the contrary of the heated nationalism within Japan, Fukuchi indifferently counted the loss in economy during the war and he concluded that sending troops into Taiwan outweighed the gain. He suggested that Japan should solve the domestic development and education by using the bilateral conflict. Japan’s diplomatic strategy should focus on western countries but not Asian countries. Fukuchi showed no interests in China on the surface, but beneath the indifference, he was truly concerned about Japan’s diplomatic crisis of under the weak economy basis. Besides, in that event. Fukuchi gradually confirmed a fixed thinking model, in which he tried to solve the domestic problem by using the invasion strategy. The realistic method of Machiavellism became the major characteristic of his view on China in the future. In chapter eight, it surveys how Fukuchi’s views on China and the world had been changed after the conflict between the officials and common people after the flourishing of the civil rights movements in Japan. During that period. Fukuchi published a series of books which include: Popular Discourse on National Rights. Popular Discourse on People ’s Rights. Transition of People’s Way of Thinking. Commentary on the Current Problems. In those books. he abandoned the thoughts of pursuing freedom and equality and turned to the thought that the right of the state was prior to the right of the civil rights. At the same time, he exaggerated the foreign crisis, advocating that Japan should claim war to encourage national spirit so that the harmony of the officials and common people could be achieved. He denied the international justice in the International Laws, advocated the "Japanese strategy" to violate other countries. finally became a nationalist withAsianism.Coincidentally. some Koran reformers approached Fukuchi at that time. During the guidance, companioned with confidence of the development of Japanese civilization, Fukuchi expressed his Eastern Asia strategy and became a complete Asianist after urging Japan to be the "Leader of East Pacific Allicance." Chapter nine has a survey on Fukuchi ’s view on China during Korean Coup in1882. Before the year of1882, Fukuchi thought that Japan was the representative of Asian countries:therefore it’s undoubtedly the one who send army to the other Asian countries and control them. Behind the confidence lied the despise upon China. So. contrary to the other politicians and thinkers, Fukuchi wrote some tough articles. But the swift reaction of the Qing government during the coup totally overturned Fukuchi’s views on China:he thought that China was a powerful military country. He therefore considered China as a powerful competitor of Japan and fastened the pace to influent KoreaChapter ten has a survey on the periods between the1882Coup to the1884Gapsin Coup in Korea. Fukuchi’s view on China was changed and shaken under the triangle framework of China. Japan and Korea. After the1882Coup. Fukuchi took a series of actions to operate his "Korea Strategy." He influenced and guided the Korean reformers:sent his students to guide Korean officials. united radical activists in Japan to offer weapons for the people in the coup. But the1884Coup of Korea lasted only three days after the interference of the troops sent by the Qing government. It was the mark of the failure of Fukuchi’s "Korea Strategy." Fukuchi published Datsu-A Ron with great disappointment after his failure. He claimed that Japan should be separated from Asia and should suppress China and Korea by using Europeans violent method. If only judged by Fukuchi’s Datsu-A Ron, he became an imperialist from an Asianist.From the1884Gapsin Coup to the Sino-Japanese War of1894-1895. Fukuchi’s view on China shifted from coordination and confrontation constantly. Chapter eleven mainly analyzes the background and characters during that period of time. Fukuchi didn’t give up Asianism completely. In1885. the Great Britain occupied Port Hamilton. facing the conflict between Britain and Russia, the relationship between China and Japan had a temporary peace. Fukuchi therefore emphasized the importance of the harmoruous relationship with China. He also stressed that it was necessary to trade with China to learn Chinese language and so on. In1886. the "Nagasaki Event" happened during the visit of the Beiyang Fleet stimulated the sensitive nerve of Fukuchi. It forced him to pick the Asianism again and urged Japanese government to set a "Defense Line " along the territory of Korea and keep Korea within the sphere of Japanese influence. His idea was adopted and uttered in Premier Yamagata Aritomo’s speech in the Japanese Congress.Chapter twelve analyzes Fukuchi’s view on China before the Sina-Japanese War of 1894-1895and the domestic policies within Japan. Japan issued Meiji Constitution in1889and set the congress the next year. It remarked the establishment of contemporary system of Japanese emperor. At the same time, free civil rights activists also had a lawful space. The conflict between the civil rights activists and the autocratic government became severe. Officials and common people were incompatible. Facing the crisis, Fukuchi stressed the power of his "Korea Strategy ", ignored the "Korean as a Vassal state " raised by the Qing government. He suggested that the Japanese government provoke conflicts in Korea so that they could find an excuse of international conflict to release the crisis within Japan. At that moment, Fukuchi completed eliminated the kind intention to guide Korea to step into the rank of civilized society around1884and fell into the circumstance of" using tricks to run the country". In his mind, China was the barrier to the success of "Japanese Strategy." During the negotiation of the "Grain Embargo Controversy" between Japan and Korea, he continuously urged Japanese government to provoke conflicts in Korea and even having a war with China.Chapter thirteen mainly had survey on the speeches and views on China before the Sino-Japanese War of1894-1895. In the year of1894, Kim Okgyun was assassinated in Shanghai. Fukuchi was outraged of the event treated by China and Korea because Fukuchi and Kim Okgyun had a close relationship. He proposed a battle between Japan and China. After the war, Fukuchi wrote and published editorials everyday. He advocated wars, donations and encouraged Japanese soldiers rushed to Beijing to kill and rob. He indulged himself into the craziness of the war He also tried to cover the massacre in Lushun, beautify the invasion of Taiwan. During the negotiation after the victory, he asked for high compensation and a large piece of land to weaken China’s ability to recover from the loss. His inhumane activities showed that he was almost insane. He defined the Sino-Japanese War as the war between a civilized Japan and a barbaric China. Meanwhile, in order to hide the injustice of Japan, he tried to find a reasonable excuse for the war. The Sino-Japanese War was not only the realization of Fukuchi’s lifelong thoughts about civilization in reality, but also the declaration of the end of Meiji enlightening thoughts. Since then, the system of Japanese emperor became stable and Japan ran on a road to fascism.Conclusion:The views on China of Fukuzawa Yukichi were derived from the Confucius education in his boyhood and strengthened after a further understanding of a real China during his growth. The views were adapted according to the change of Sino-Japanese relationship. Because he knew Chinese classics and culture very well, his views on China were more comprehensive than the views held by other Japanese in his time. The traits which contained the perspectives of history of civilization had a profound influence upon the diplomatic policies executed by Japan government and the overall impression of China for the contemporary Japanese during the Meiji time.更多还原