【作者】 张波；

【导师】 姚颂平；

【作者基本信息】 上海体育学院 ， 体育人文社会学， 2013， 博士

【摘要】 当前，体育竞赛活动开展广泛，像奥运会、足球世界杯等都是全球顶级盛会。那么，古代有没有体育竞赛？在公元前200年之前的历史时期里，流传下来的关于体育竞赛的记录是极为有限的。人们熟知的是古希腊的奥林匹克竞技会，那么，中国古代有没有体育竞赛？本研究检索了先秦时期88部原典著作以及部分甲骨文和金文史料，力图从中分析中国最早的体育竞赛。在大量体育史料的梳理中，根据我们所界定的体育竞赛的构成条件，我们将目标集中在五个项目上，分别为角抵、走跑、骑御、蹴鞠和射箭。从进一步的考察中，我们发现角抵是一种明显的竞争性活动，但是记载较少，而且沦为娱乐观赏；跑步也曾经出现了竞赛的记载，但是很快就在历史中销声匿迹，而且成为需要控制的身体活动被排除于礼仪之外。御有可能进行过竞赛，但在存留下来的文献中我们没有找到明确的记载；蹴鞠中出现了明确的竞赛规则，但是其时期较晚，仅在汉代的百戏之中兴盛，并且未能进入中国文化的大传统之中；在中国先秦时期，射箭是中国最早的体育竞赛，其构成条件出现最早也最为完备，而且在当时的社会观念中影响力极大，几乎先秦诸子都有针对“射”的论述。因此，我们认为射箭不仅是中国最早的体育竞赛，而且是中国古代体育竞赛的代表。射箭早在巫术和神话时代就已经开始脱离了单纯的狩猎和军事之用，在祭祀文化中成为一种“礼”之所需。“巫射四方”赋予了“射”以一种非实用性功能，“后羿射日”则将“射”提升到了人们观念的高位。中国特有的祭祀文化将“射”这种获取牺牲的实用性活动，彻底的赋予了一种新的意义，而且提升到了最高的社会集体活动当中，即国之大事的“祀”。周公“制礼作乐”之后，祭祀中的祭礼，成为一种社会政治制度“礼制”，“射”也随着“礼”成为一种极高的社会性活动——“射礼”，从而进入中国文化的大传统之中。西周射礼有明确的参赛者、裁判员、竞赛场地、竞赛规则和竞赛结果，是一种典型的体育竞赛，从东周礼书中所记载的射礼竞赛细节来看，其组织的完备化程度，不仅丝毫不输古希腊竞技会，甚至不逊于今天的体育赛会。随着春秋战国的“礼崩乐坏”，孔子等“轴心时代”的思想家在“秩序情结”的作用之下，开始赋予了射礼竞赛更多的人文道德意义。儒家将“射”这种竞争性的身体活动，提升为了一种“君子之争”，即将攻击性本能的“争”导向一种道德的修炼。尽管秦统六国之后，放弃了疏导的方法，转而采取压制的方式处理“争”等问题，并且成为长期以来中国所采取的固定方式。但就先秦时期的射礼竞赛而言，我们将其文化的特质概括为“以德引争”，即承认的“争”的存在，但是需要加以控制和引导。这也是我们今天真正需要继承的体育哲学思想。为了能够更好的发现中国古代体育竞赛的特点，我们将古希腊竞技会作为对比的对象，从体育竞赛的角度进行了一番梳理。古希腊体育竞赛的组织程度同样极为完备，而且其起源同样与巫术和神话有着极为紧密的联系。在考察橄榄枝为何被戴在运动员头上这一问题的过程中，我们发现了橄榄枝从象征“生殖魔力”到“生命活力”转化的文化背景。古希腊体育竞赛通过对于卓越的追求，将攻击性本能同样提升到了精神层面。我们的研究对象主要是这两种体育竞赛现象，及其背后的社会结构与观念。通过深入挖掘原始时代人们的意识观念与社会形态背景，来理解当时体育竞赛的来龙去脉，并诠释出体育竞赛的历史文化意义。体育竞赛是一种特定的身体活动形式。人类独有的精神创造，将这种身体层面的竞争从对抗性冲突中剥离出来，无意识的表达着人类对自身、社会与自然的独特认识。在身体的较量的背后，实质上是“文明”与“野蛮”的对抗。体育竞赛的历史，也是一段人类文明的演化史。中西文明的进程所面对的是同一个问题，即如何将动物性的生存本能所塑造的攻击性本能，约束在一个社会规则的范围内，从而实现和谐的生活在一起？这也是一个社会所能够形成的一个根本性问题。否则，人们像动物一样互相攻击，是无法实现合作从而更好地生存的。在解决这个问题的时候，即在从对抗性冲突转变为纯粹竞争的文明进程中，中西出现了分野。中国方面，受血缘氏族宗法结构的影响，先秦时期的文化意识集中于世俗伦理以及社会秩序。这决定了中国古代体育竞赛主要从疏导攻击性本能的角度切入，即在面对“争”与“乱”的时候，如何将攻击性本能像“大禹治水”一样加以疏导，如何在身体较量的时候，学会将内心的冲动加以控制，将身体的较量提升为一种修炼的行为。哪种形式的体育竞赛活动能够在中国古代兴盛，取决于是否符合一种等级有序的社会秩序构建。最终射礼登上了历史的舞台，我们将这种体育竞赛的文化特质概括为“以德引争”。古希腊方面，由于其神话宗教意识的发达及其特有的城邦结构，决定了古希腊体育竞赛从超越人攻击性本能的角度切入。神作为完美的人的化身，构建了一种最佳的社会秩序结构，即主神宙斯掌管一切，却又要与其他的神分享其权力。因而，“正义”是处理社会关系的根本原则，有了正义的保障，任何人都可以超越自身的自然局限来追求神一样的完美。因而，只有那些推崇不断超越自身极限的身体较量活动才能在古希腊的文化背景中生长。最终跑步等身体力量型的竞赛项目登上了历史的舞台，我们将这种竞赛的文化特质概括为“以竞显荣”。两种体育竞赛均兴盛于雅斯贝尔斯所提出的“轴心时代”，随着人类理性的启蒙，对身体活动本身的自我意识萌生，人们力求用理性而非神幻的方式，来把握自身的社会性身体活动。对于两种不同文化背景中身体活动形式的历史考察，便于我们深入挖掘体育的核心要素——竞争，如何塑造了不同地域的体育文化特质。更多还原

【Abstract】 Currently, extensive sports competitions like the Olympic Games, the footballWorld Cup and so are the world’s top event. Well, is there sport competition inancient times?In the historical period before200BC, handed down on sports competitionrecord is extremely limited. The well-known ancient sports competition is GreekOlympic Games, so, is there any sports competition in the ancient Chinese? Thisstudy retrieved88original texts of the pre-Qin period works well as part of the Oracleand Clementi historical data, trying to analyze China’s first sports competition. Inthese historical combing, we find: a total of five projects with some elements of thesports competitions is wrestling, running, driving, Cuju and archery. From our furtherinvestigation found that wrestling is a clear competitive activities, but lessdocumented, and reduced to entertaining to watch; running, there have been a recordof the competition, but soon disappeared in history, and become the need to controlthe physical activity were excluded in addition to the rite. Driving may is a kind ofcontest, but not clearly recorded in the surviving literature; Cuju in clear competitionrules, but the period of late only flourished in the Han Dynasty among the Chineseculture, and failed to enter the tradition; during the Qin Dynasty in China, almost theonly archery can be recognized as a form of sports competition, and great influence insociety was almost pre-Qin philosophers have "shot" exposition. Therefore, webelieve that archery is not only the first Chinese sports competitions, but also therepresention of the ancient Chinese sports competitions.Arrow as early as the age of magic and myth has begun from simple hunting andmilitary purposes, to become a "rite" required in the ritual culture.“Witch shot” givearchery a non-utility function,“myth shoot” make archery elevated to the high levelof people’s attitudes. Ritual culture unique to China "shoot" the expense of practicalactivities such access, completely given a new meaning, and elevated to the highestsocial group activities which affairs of state worship."Zhou Gong" make rite andmusic, worship rituals, become a social and political systems "ritual system","shoot"with the "rite" become a highly social activity–“rite archery”, thereby into the greattradition of the Chinese culture. Zhou’s rite archery is a clear competition, it hascompetitors, referees, competition venues, contest rules and contest results, is atypical sports competition, according to the Chunqiu’s book, the details of ritualarchery contest not only same as the ancient Greek athletics, but also same as today’ssports events. Confucius tries to given the fire ceremony competition more humaneand moral significance. The Confucian "shot" competitive physical activity, improveorder a "gentleman dispute, about to attack instinct" competition-oriented kind ofmoral practice. Qin system after the six countries to give up divert pressed shift todealing with the "competition", and China has long been taken fixation. However, thepurpose of the Qin Dynasty Shooting Ceremony contest, we will be the characteristicsof their culture summed up as "Dehua dispute" which recognizes that "competition"exists, but need to be controlled and guide. Today, we really need to inherit sportsphilosophy. In order to be able to find the characteristics of ancient Chinese sportscompetitions, the ancient Greek athletics as compared to the object. The degree oforganization of the ancient Greek sports competitions is also extremelycomprehensive, and its origins also have extremely close ties with witchcraft andmyths. Inspection olive branch why is worn on the head of the athletes, we found thatthe olive branch symbol of "reproductive magic" to the "vitality" into the culturalbackground. Ancient Greek athletic competition through the pursuit of excellence, theaggressive instinct is the same elevated to the spiritual level. Our study was mainlytargeted at both sports competitions phenomenon, and its historical significance. Digprimitive times, people’s awareness of the concept of social forms background tounderstand the ins and outs of the sports competitions, and interpretation of thehistorical and cultural significance of sports competitions.The sports competition is a specific form of physical activity. Uniquely humanspirit to create the level of competition in this body was spun off from the adversarialconflict, unconscious expression of a unique understanding of the human, social andnatural. Behind in the body of the contest, it declared the confrontation of the"civilized" and "barbaric". It is not only the history of sports competitions, but also theperiod of the history of the evolution of human civilization.The process of Chinese and Western civilization are facing the same problem,namely, how the survival instinct of the animal shaped aggressive instincts,constraints within the scope of the rules in a society, in order to achieve a harmoniousliving together? It is also a society capable of forming a fundamental problem.Otherwise, people like animals attack each other, it is impossible to achievecooperation in order to better survive. Solve this problem that is in the process ofcivilization from the adversarial conflict into a purely competitive and Westerndistinction.China, affected by the kinship clan patriarchal structure, the Qin Dynasty culturalawareness focused on secular ethics and social order. This determines the ancientChinese sports competition, mainly from the angle of cut to ease the aggressiveinstinct, in the face of "competition" and "chaos" when, how aggressive instincts like"Dayu" as to divert; how to contest in the body the impulses learn to be controlled, thebody of the contest promoted to a practice act. What form of sports competitionsflourished in ancient China, ordered a hierarchical social order dependent on thesatisfaction construct. Shooting Ceremony eventually boarded the stage of history,we will be the cultural characteristics of this sports competitions summarized as "fromcompetition to virtue."In ancient Greece, due to its myth of religious consciousness developed itsunique city-state structure, determines the ancient Greek athletic competition cut fromthe perspective of improve people’s aggressive instincts. The incarnation of God asthe perfect person to build a social order structure, that is the main god Zeus in chargeof everything, but to share their power with other gods. Thus, the "justice" to dealwith the fundamental principle of social relations and the security of justice, anyonecan go beyond its natural limitations to the pursuit of the perfect God. Therefore, onlythe esteem to constantly transcend the limits of their own body contests, to grow in the ancient Greek cultural background. Eventually running and other physical forcesboarded the project-based contest the stage of history, we will summarize the culturalcharacteristics of this contest is "from competation to honour"。Both sports competition flourished in the Jaspers’"Axial Age", the initiation ofhuman rationality of the Enlightenment, the self-consciousness of the physical activityitself, people strive rational rather than Shenhuan way, to grasp their own the socialnature of physical activity. The purpose of Historical Survey of physical activity inthe form of two different cultural backgrounds is to dig deeper core elements of sport–competition. And to find out how dose sports cometition shaped the sports andcultural characteristics of different regions.更多还原