入传、对话与突破

【作者】 崔峰；

【导师】 李利安；

【作者基本信息】 西北大学 ， 世界史， 2013， 博士

【摘要】 印度佛教向中国输入是古代人类文明交往史上以和平方式进行的、较为成功的典型案例,鸠摩罗什传教译经又是这一案例中的重要事件之一。通过对他早年在印度、西域佛法的学习,到来长安译经传教,再到其理论思想和译经对内地佛教产生的影响这一发生发展全过程的考察和剖析,来透视印度佛教进入中国本土文化机体的发生路径、历史契机、接触对话以及进入异质文化下的发展轨迹、命运和异变。这不仅能深化对历史原来面目的认识,也对今天的文化交往有着重要的指导意义。印度小乘一切有部的发展主要集中在北部地区,开始以犍陀罗为中心,后转移到罽宾。而且当时的贵霜王国境内,大小乘佛教呈现并存发展的态势。从早期的于阗寺院遗址和龟兹的石窟艺术看,最初向西域输入的是犍陀罗的小乘佛教。随着大乘佛教在贵霜王国的兴起,西域也接受了印度的大乘佛教。从汉地译经中可以获悉,大乘佛教经典主要在莎车和南道的于阗等地流通。而当时的北道龟兹等国继续被小乘佛教统治,不过这一时期影响它们的主要是来自印度罽宾的有部佛法。鸠摩罗什早年接触的主要是罽宾一切有部的小乘佛教。尊贵的地位和聪明的才智,使他很快成为英才少年。在归途的莎车国,他接触了大乘佛教和龙树的中观学说,从此开始了佛法方向的转变。在龟兹受具戒后继续研习大乘佛学,并配合龟兹王白纯的改革,成为名震西域的一代高僧。虽然在两汉时有大月氏人将佛教直传到内地,但从魏晋开始,西域的中介地位逐渐突显,许多高僧来内地传教译经。由于译经的数量有限,译经质量的不高和缺乏佛教哲学的指导,汉地佛教一直不能得到快速的发展。依附于玄学的“格义”佛教,始终不能走向自我发展的道路。同时由于北方长期战乱,五胡十六国许多统治者利用佛教来稳定自己的政权地位。所有这些都构成了鸠摩罗什来长安译经传教的历史契机。在姚兴统治集团的大力支持下,各地优秀义学僧聚集长安听罗什讲学。虽然译经期间也充斥着政教之间与印度译经僧人团之间的矛盾关系,但罗什超凡的个人能力再加上其它各种有利因素,使长安译经取得了重大成功。长安的译经传教使印度佛教开始植入中土文化的机体。鸠摩罗什带来的许多印度、西域的思想开始与中国内地的文化发生接触碰撞,并产生重要影响。中观四论的产生促进了印度大乘佛教的发展,罗什常以龙树传人自居,中观般若学成为他的哲学主导思想。他真实、准确的翻译了印度中观般若理论,一方面帮助中国僧人正确理解了大乘佛学的真髓,产生了肇论,使中国佛教走向独立发展的道路并且有了大小乘的判教意识；另一方面它又面临着与中土传统文化的矛盾。这种“毕竟空”思想的历史局限性,不仅在印度本土甚至在汉地也受到质疑。中国传统文化的“尚有”和“人人皆可为尧舜”的思想,与稍后的《大般涅槃经》中“众生皆有佛性”、“人人皆可成佛”的主张不谋而合,佛性论很快替代中观般若学成为新思潮。不仅如此,鸠摩罗什翻译的很多经典对中国佛教发展产生了深远影响。但是这种影响显著的表现在同一种内容,由于两国不同的文化背景呈现出完全不同的发展轨迹和命运。印度的佛教进入中土后,得到严格的挑选和吸收,并在发展中发生异变甚至创造出新的内容。从对诸宗派的思想影响看,《金刚经》在印度长期流传,但在中国的唐代,由于禅宗对它的选择和唐玄宗的御注颁天下,成为唐代以降的至上经典。在印度得不到流行的《成实论》,却在中国的南北朝一度兴盛,成为众多成实论师追捧的名品。龙树的三论之学只是在短暂的隋和唐初由吉藏创立了三论宗,但很快衰落下去。在印度流行的《法华经》,在中国也一直流行并成为天台宗建宗的经典依据。从民众的信仰领域看,印度的观音信仰有多种类型,但中国本土却唯独选择救苦救难这一功能,其后又创造出自己的“经典”,并把他改造成温柔贤惠的女性形象。阿弥陀造像在印度十分少见,但从唐代开始,伴随着西方净土信仰的崛起,成为民众造像的主流题材。弥勒下生信仰由于被下层民众反叛者利用而遭一度禁止,但到了宋代又创造出人人皆知的大肚弥勒形象并广泛流传开来。《维摩诘经》中的居士形象,则成为历代士大夫追求的目标,并对其形象进行了自我的加工改造。这些事实都说明,纯印度的东西在进入异质的中国文化机体后发生了异变,使它更适应本土文化的要求。从鸠摩罗什传教译经的整个过程看,汉文化发展的不足和需要是印度佛教进入本土的前提,而被选择吸收和改造乃至最终与本土文化的融合是其发展的一般规律。而历史时机和方法论的选择又是其成功输入的必要条件。同时在输入的过程中又表现出持续性、时代性和整体性相统一的特征和中国文化的“主体性”原则。分析和透视这些特征,对于我们认识今天中华文化与外来文化的交往,具有现实的借鉴意义。更多还原

【Abstract】 Buddhism’s spread from India to China was the peaceful,successful and typical case in human civilization communication history. Kumarajiva’s translation and missionary was one of the important event in this case. By studying his acquisition in India and Western regions, preaching and translation in Chang’an,we can discover the path, opportunity, contact and developing process of India Buddhism entering Chinese native culture organism. It can not only reveal the historical original social existence really, also has important guiding significance for today’s cultural communication.India Theravada mainly concentrated in the northern region. Gandhara was the ealier center and then transfered to the Ji bin. At that time, Mahayana Buddhism had was rising in the Kushan Kingdom territory. The early Khotan temple sites and Qiuci grotto art told us that Gandharan Theravada buddhism is the early source for Western regions. Later, it accepted Mahayana Buddhism. From the Chinese translation sutras we can know Mahayana Buddhism had prevalent in Shache, Khotan and other south region of Western. While other northern road countries of Western were ruling of Theravada Buddhism that was from Ji Bin. Kumarajiva mainly studied Theravada buddhism in Ji Bin. He contacted Mahayana Buddhism theory On the back way in Shache and began to change his direction. He continued to study Mahayana philosophy quickly became a talented younger monk of the Western regions.Darou zhi people had bring Buddhism to the mainland in the Han Dynasty. But from Wei and Gin Dynasty, the intermediary position of the Western regions highlighted gradually and many monks came to inland to preach. Due to the limited number of translation quality, and the lack of the guidance of Buddhist philosophy, Chinese Buddhism has been unable to get a rapid development. As a result," Geyi Buddhism "arised and Chinese Buddhism always cannot walk to the self-development road. At the same time, because of the long-term chaos caused by war, many minority ethnic rulers of the Sixteen States in the Northernwanted to using Buddhism to stabilize their political position. All these formed the historical opportunity that Kumarajiva enter into Chang’an and preach the Mahayana Buddhism. Yao Xing group supported strongly the translation project,so that Chang’an gathered lots of excellent monks. Of course, althouth was full of difficulties in translating period,due to Kumarajiva’s unusual capacity and favorable factors, Chang’an translation achieved big success.Kumarajiva’s missionary enabled India Buddhism to Chinese culture organism. India and Western thoughts began to contact with Chinese cultural produced important effect. As the main Mahayana Buddhism philosophy in India,Longshu theory was accurately translated by Kumarajiva. On the one hand, it help Chinese monk correctly understanding the essence of Mahayana Buddhism so as to produced "Zhao" theory that made Chinese Buddhism to independent development path, on the other hand it also faced contradiction with Chinese traditional cultural."After all this empty"thought had it’s historical limitation not only in the local India even in China. Chinese traditional culture advacates reality and thinks that everyone can became Yao and Shun. This thought consistants with Mahayana Buddhism.It think that all beings have Buddha nature and can be Buddha. Later, the ideas soon replaced Longshu theory and became the new trend.Many classical sutras by Kumarajiva translating, has produced a profound influnce on the development of Chinese Buddhism. However, due to different cultural background the same content, presents a completely different development path and the fate. India Buddhism got a rigorous selection and absorption while it entering Chinese culture. Some contents produced transformation and others created new things. From the sectarian thought influence, we can see this appearance. As a popular classic in India,"Diamond Sutra " also became the supreme in the Tang Dynasty. It was the first classic sutra for Zen,and was wortshiped with Xuanzong emperor."Cheng shi theory" was not in the popular In India, but prospered in the southern and Northern Dynasties of China. Many famous monks pursuited it."Three theories School" was established by Jizang monk in Sui Dynasty and the earlier Tang Dynasty,but soon declined."Lotus Sutra " was popular classic both in India and in China. It was the basis ideas of "Tiantai school". In the field of people’s beliefs,"Guanyin" belief in India has many types, but helping people to free peril became the only choosed one and created their own image. Finally, he became a gentle and female image. Amida statue is very rare in India, but accomgpanied the rise of the "Western Pure Land",from Tang Dynasty, became the mian theme of statues. Maitreya "Xiasheng" beliefs once banned and became the using God for lower class to rebel. However, the big belly Maitreya image was created and widely spreaded until Song Dynasty. Vimalakirti image in the Buddhist sutra, becames the pursuited goal for Chinese scholar,and created the new image.These facts show that pure India things must occurred strongely change as it input into the heterogeneous Chinese cultural body. Thus, it can better adapted to the requirements of local culture.Fom the whole translation and preaching course about Kumarajiva we can see some fectures. The insufficient and needs of Chinese culture is the premise factor that India Buddhism input to China.It was selective absorption and created new things as to became the integration of the local culture. Historical opportunity and method of choice is the necessary condition for successful entry. Meanwhile,the process demonstrated many general characteristics such as persistent, the times and the overall unity.But the "subjectivity" principle is the outstanding one. By Analysising these characteristics, can help us better perspectiving understanding the different civilization communication.更多还原