【作者】 刘洋；

【导师】 杜家骥；

【作者基本信息】 南开大学 ， 中国古代史， 2012， 博士

【摘要】 清代处于中国帝制时代的晚期，也是中国古代向近代转型的重要阶段。基层社会方面在沿袭前代的传统因素之外，又呈现出诸多新的变化，形成了一些不同以往的特点。概括起来，其主要表现为以下四个方面。一是满汉民族矛盾虽在各时期显现程度不同，但贯穿有清一代始终；二是摊丁入亩政策的推行，不但实现了中国古代赋役征收由税丁为主向税产为主的最终转变，而且也促使人口在清代急剧增加；三是人丁编审制度的取消，使百姓可以轻去其乡，社会流动大为频繁，导致来自不同地域的人群“五方杂处”；四是西方殖民者的入侵导致民族危机与社会矛盾相互交织，空前激化。针对上述复杂的社会状况，清政府构建了远较前代严密、健全的基层权力体系来加强对社会的管理。按性质不同，清代的基层权力体系主要分为基层行政系统和基层军事系统两大部分。所谓基层行政系统是指帝国内部数量众多，与百姓关系最为密切的县级政府。由于清代的散州、散厅与县均属同级，因此它们所在的政府也均属县级政府。清代的县级政府由朝廷命官和行政辅助人员两部分群体构成。朝廷命官中既有正印官，又有佐杂官；行政辅助人员中既包括国家典制明确设立的书吏和差役，又有正印官自行雇佣的幕友和长随。清代的县级政府职掌繁多，涵盖刑名、钱谷、治安、教化等各种事务。然而囿于朝廷各项繁琐的则例与法规，县级政府的自主权却十分有限。清代县级政府的行政经费十分匮乏，这迫使其通过征收陋规、派差民间等方式应对高额的日常开支。基层行政系统中按其内部行政地位的不同又可分为主体行政系统和辅佐行政系统。清代县级政府实行正印官独任制。作为皇权在该地的唯一代表，正印官在地方行政中处于主导地位，并与其亲信幕友、长随，办事人员书吏、胥役构成了地方的主体行政系统。作为基层权力体系的核心，以正印官为代表的主体行政系统不仅管辖事务广泛，直接承担当地的赋税征收、司法裁判、治安维护、教化百姓、社会救助、工商业管理等各项主要职能；而且地方“刑名”、“钱谷”等要务皆由其独揽，人力、财力俱归其控制。辅佐行政系统主要指县级政府中的佐杂官群体。清代不同时期的佐杂官在社会管理方面发挥的作用有着显著的差别。清初佐杂官大都无重要职掌，一直处于闲散状态，以致沦为冗员，因而遭到了大量裁汰，在地方社会管理中扮演着无足轻重的角色。雍正以来，人口激增、社会流动频繁，政府为加强对社会的管理，将数量众多的府县佐杂陆续派驻到城外的重要市镇及关津险要地区，承担着所谓“分防”职责，社会管理职能显著提高。咸同以后，政府对基层社会的控制力大幅度减弱，加之浩大的军费和赔款使国家陷入空前的财政危机，导致内地省区的佐杂分防基本处于萎缩状态，职能亦明显弱化。基层军事系统主要指遍布全国各地的武职营汛兵弁。作为驻防绿营的基层组织——营汛系统不仅驻扎分散，如星罗棋布一般，而且设置周密，其下标营、协营、城守营、分防营、汛塘分工明确，各有防守重点，覆盖区域由省城、府城、县城以至乡间的关津险要与交通要道，起到了“建威消萌”的作用，遂成为清政府加强基层社会控制的一项得力工具。一方面，营汛系统作为稳控地方的主要力量，承担着维护当地正常社会秩序的重任。如有民变及群体性事件发生，驻防营汛系统必须协同县级政府迅速、及时的加以处理。另一方面，由于清初节省开支，大量裁减了州县衙门中的番役、民壮，迫使地方的治安巡查和缉私捕盗等工作亦由营汛兵弁来承担。总之，镇守防控兼具各种杂差是清代武职营汛的一大特色。除上述官方系统外，基层社会还设有各类民间组织。他们大都在基层行政系统的直接领导下，协助政府完成各项职能，遂形成了民间协助系统。清代民间协助系统的群体十分广泛。它包括以宗族为代表的血缘组织，以保甲、乡约为代表的地缘组织，以会馆、行会为代表的业缘组织，和清末士绅主导下兴起的团练、公所。各类民间组织参与事务众多，不仅协助官方完成赋税征收、维持治安，教化百姓等事务，还主动承担当地的纠纷调节，社会救助，工商业管理等事务。特别是同光以来，伴随官方对基层社会控制力的减弱，各地士绅群体日趋活跃，甚至兴办公所、团练直接管理地方的各项事务，颇有“自治”的意味。更多还原

【Abstract】 Qing dynasty was in the late stage of China’s imperial age, which was also animportant stage of the transition from ancient China to modern China. At theperspective of grass-roots community, it followed the traditional factors of theprevious dynasty, and also presented many new changes, forming some differentcharacteristics. To sum up, its main changes are reflected in the following four aspects.Firstly, Manchu ethnic conflicts appeared in varying degrees in various periods, but itexisted throughout the Qing dynasty. Secondly, the implementation of theTandingrumu policies achieved the final transition of ancient China’s taxes systemwhich was from the poll tax to property tax. The cancellation of the poll tax alsocontributed to the rapid population increase of Qing dynasty. Thirdly, the cancellationof the household registration system of the population made people leave their homeeasily; and social mobility became more frequent. As a result, populations fromdifferent geographical areas can live together. Fourthly, invasion of western colonistsled to the unprecedented intensification of national crisis and social contradictions. Inresponse to these complex social situations, the Qing government built a grass-rootspower system which is more rigorous and sound than the previous dynasty tostrengthen the management of society.According to the nature, the grass-roots power system of the Qing Dynasty canbe divided into grass-roots administrative systems and grass-roots military systems.Grass-roots administrative system refers to numerous county governments within theempire which had a close relationship with the people. Because department and subprefecture in Qing dynasty belonged to the same level as county, so their governmentswere also belonged to the county government. The county government of the Qingdynasty consisted of the court officials and administrative support staffs. Courtofficials included principal seal-holding officials and assistant officials.Administrative support staffs included the clerical sub official and Yamen runnerwhich were regulated by the law, and private adviser and servants which were hiredby officials themselves. The responsibility of county governments in the Qing dynasty covered many aspects, including criminal justice, finance, public order,education and other matters. However, limited by the cumbersome rules andregulations, the autonomy of the county government was very limited. Theadministrative expenses of the county governments in the Qing dynasty weredeficient, which forced them to use corrupt rules, and other ways to cope with thehigh daily expenses.According to their internal administrative status, the grass-roots administrativesystems can also be divided into main administrative system and assistantadministrative systems. The county governments of the Qing dynasty adopted theprincipal seal-holding officials serving in single system. As the sole representative ofthe imperial power in the land, principal seal-holding officials were in a dominantposition in the local administration. Private adviser, servants, clerical sub official,Yamen Runner and they constituted the main body of the local administrative system.As the core of the grass-roots power system, principal seal-holding officials as therepresentative of the main administrative system not only managed a multitude ofthings, including the local tax levy, justice administration, public order, education,social assistance, business management, and other matters, but also controlled thelocal justice, finance and other important affairs.The assistant administrative system refers to the assistant officials in the countygovernments. At different times, there were significant differences in the role playedby the assistant officials in social management. In early Qing dynasty, assistantofficials usually didn’t have important responsibilities. They had been in the idle state,which led to redundant and expelled. They played an insignificant role in themanagement of local society. After the Yongzheng period, the population grewrapidly and social mobility became frequent. In order to strengthen the managementof society, many prefectures and county assistant officials were successively sent tocrucial towns and checkpoints, and undertook the duties of “sub-defense”, whichsignificantly improved their social management functions. After Xiangfeng andTongzhi period, government control over the grass-roots community greatlyweakened, coupled with the vast military and reparations plunged the country into anunprecedented financial crisis. As a result, the “sub-defense” in mainland province gradually shrunk, and their functions were significantly weakened.Grass-roots military system mainly refers to the brigade system throughout thecountry. As the grass-roots organizations of stationed green standards, brigadesystems were both dispersed and carefully set, covering the region from theprovincial capitals, prefectures, county to even crucial checkpoints and traffic arteries.With the role of deterrence, it had become a powerful tool for the government tostrengthen grass-roots social control. On one hand, as a major force for local stability,the brigade system undertook the important task of maintaining social order. Whenuprising and mass incidents occurred, stationed brigade system must work withcounty governments to respond quickly and timely. On the other hand, due to theexpenses saving in early Qing dynasty, the government reduced the personnel in thecounty governments, forcing the brigade systems to undertake the responsibilities ofmaintaining local public order and anti-smuggling work. In short, guarding and allkinds of chores is a major feature of the brigade system in Qing dynasty.In addition to the official system, there were all kinds of non-governmentalorganizations in grass-roots community. Most of them were under the directleadership of the grass-roots administrative systems. They assist the government tocomplete the various functions, resulting in a formation of a civil assist system.Groups of the civil assist system in Qing dynasty were very extensive. It included thekinship organizations such as clan, geographical organizations such as communityself-defense system，industrial organizations such as guild hall, and the militia systemwhich were lead by squires in the late Qing dynasty. Various types ofnon-governmental organizations participated in many affairs. They not only assistedthe officials completing tax levy, maintaining public order, educating the people, butalso took the initiative to mediate local disputes, social assistance, businessmanagement and other matters. Especially after the Tongzhi and Guangxu period,along with the weakening of the official control over the grass-roots community,squire groups across the country were increasingly active. They even set up themilitias to manage local affairs which had the characteristics of autonomy.更多还原