【作者】 孟宪霞；

【导师】 徐艳玲；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 思想政治教育， 2012， 博士

【摘要】 本选题属于“马克思主义宗教观”综合研究体系的一部分。当前我国的宗教理论研究与宗教政策制定皆以“马克思主义宗教观”为指导,“马克思主义宗教观”属于我国宗教领域的主流意识形态,其重要性不言而喻。然而梳理与统观整个“马克思主义宗教观”的研究,我们发现,学术界对于“马克思主义宗教观”的研究尽管在很多方面已经成绩卓著,但在完整性上却有所欠缺,那就是,缺少了对各社会主义国家宗教理论与实践的系统研究,并进行综合省思。“马克思主义宗教观”发端于马克思恩格斯的宗教思想,其在上个世纪初的苏联生根发芽,以致根深叶茂,形成了列宁、斯大林等领导人的宗教观,新中国成立之后,中国共产党人接力继续践行马克思恩格斯列宁的宗教理念。当前无论政界还是学界,大都集中于这一脉络来研究马克思主义宗教观的发展历程。然而,就历史的真相而言,马克思恩格斯列宁的宗教观在社会主义国家的直接影响,还达及东欧八个社会主义国家,达及越南、老挝、朝鲜、古巴等至今尚存的四个社会主义国家。在马克思恩格斯列宁宗教观的统照之下,依据各国不同的国情与教情,各社会主义国家的宗教政策与宗教实践呈现出了丰富而又多彩的历史画面。因此,在“马克思主义宗教观体系”的综合研究当中,这一段,绝对是不能忽视的重要一笔。本选题力图还原“马克思主义宗教观”研究的整体性,力求弥补学术界在这一领域研究的不足,为“社会主义的宗教论”的研究增砖加瓦。梳理与分析各社会主义国家宗教的理论、政策与实践,力图在当下宗教理论认知的映照之下,总结社会主义国家处理宗教问题的经验教训,为我所用。通过本选题的研究,在理论上,进一步清理马克思恩格斯等经典作家留下的宗教观遗产；解决唯物主义的“无神论”与宗教“有神论”的二难选择；破解社会主义与宗教的关系难题；辨识宗教及宗教势力在苏东社会主义转轨中发挥了何种作用。在实践上,论析全球化时代的“两制”新格局下,社会主义国家的宗教政策应有哪些新的适应性调整等。总之,认真梳理各社会主义国家过去与今天处理宗教问题的理论与实践,总结并借鉴其成败得失,对于我们当下更好地处理中国社会主义制度下的宗教问题有着积极的借鉴意义。本文首先从中国乃至全球的“宗教热潮”、马克思的“宗教消亡论”与“宗教博兴”的现实对垒入手,提出了如下思考问题：如何看待当今时代的宗教热?社会主义国家适应全球宗教热潮,应该如何应对?马克思主义宗教观能否统领社会主义国家的宗教理论研究与实践?今天,我国的现行宗教政策是像有些人批评的“偏左”?抑或像有些人诟病的“偏右”?由此,鉴借全球宗教文化认知,尚有必要。回望与梳理各社会主义国家处理宗教问题的成败得失,并总结其经验教训,对于服务于社会主义中国当下的宗教工作实践,对于服务于中国参与全球的政治、经济、文化和意识形态的综合竞争,尤其具有直接的、重大的理论和实践意义。马克思主义宗教观是马克思恩格斯等经典作家及其后继者关于宗教的根本观点和看法,是马克思主义政党认识和处理宗教问题的世界观和方法论,其发端于马克思恩格斯的宗教思想,历经各国共产党人在本国的发展与实践。马克思主义宗教观是一脉相承的理论体系,它有着丰富的内涵,包括马克思主义者关于宗教的本质,宗教的发展规律,宗教的社会功能以及马克思主义政党对待宗教的态度等基本观点。然而,就当前“马克思主义宗教观”的研究而言,把其作为指导我国宗教认识和宗教实践的方法论来探讨,却是“马克思主义宗教观研究”当中的“短板”。马克思主义宗教观其优越于其他宗教观的过人之处就在于：其以唯物史观为指导,坚持辩证地看待问题,坚持实践性的原则,是制定政策的正确导航与科学研究的有力指导。原苏联东欧社会主义国家都有着不同于我国的浓重的宗教传统,然而在其社会主义实践的过程中,无一不是深受马克思恩格斯宗教观的深刻影响,其中尤以马克思的“宗教鸦片论”波及最甚。所以,一度采取了过于“偏左”、打击甚至消灭宗教的政策。因此,国内宗教势力一度大大放低姿态,宗教活动由地上转为地下。然而,或如许多宗教学家探讨的“人天生就是宗教的动物”,或如有些学者们提到“宗教是人类掌握世界的一种方式”、“宗教是人类的精神家园”、“宗教是人类共同的文化财富”等观点,在此,我们姑且暂时不去争辩这些命题的真伪,而今对大抵宗教已形成如下共识：当今社会,当今时代,宗教是人类生活不可或缺的精神和物质财富,宗教有其发生发展的规律,宗教消亡是很久远以后的事情。逆历史发展规律而动的后果就是——国家内部政教关系紧张,宗教在苏东剧变这场社会主义的大地震中,发挥了重要的作用。从某种意义上可以说,在剧变前,社会主义国家与宗教之间是一种“你死我活”的关系,宗教关系不和谐,人民反对社会主义政权的暗流涌动,这种敌对的暗流如果被国外反动势力借用,就有可能危及社会主义国家的安全与稳定。人民群众是历史的创造者,人民群众是社会之基,压抑创造者的宗教需要,社会地基不稳,社会主义的大厦就有倾覆的危险。苏东国家的领导人,比如列宁、斯大林、波兰领导人等,都曾经提出过非常有益的有利于宗教关系和谐的良好举措,关于这些举措,至今还在学术界存在争鸣,比如认为列宁的“宗教鸦片基石论”、“劣质酒论”,首发对马克思宗教观的曲解,是造成后来苏联继承者与各国宗教实践“左倾”的罪魁祸首等。所以梳理与阐释各国的宗教政策与实践,还原历史的真实并进行探讨与省思是非常必要的。新中国的宗教政策是承继中国共产党在新民主主义革命时期的“宗教信仰自由”政策而来的。然而,总体而言,不得不说,中国共产党的宗教自由政策总让人有“不得已而为之”的奇怪感受。的确,一方面是因为对马克思主义宗教观存在片面的“左”的理解,一方面是因为在我国近代历史上,尤其是基督教和天主教都扮演过作为殖民者的“开路先锋”的不良角色。正如蒋梦麟所言：“如来佛是骑着白象来到中国的,耶稣基督却是骑在炮弹上飞过来的。”加之宗教势力的强大,在中国从古至今的历史上,历朝历代都发挥过妄图颠覆政府的巨大作用。所以,新仇旧恨,新中国政府甚至中国人民欣然接受限制甚至消灭宗教的“国家及全民举动”,变得就不难以理解了。中国乏有宗教信仰的传统,中国自汉代以来“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”,儒家学说构建并维护了中国几千年的封建政治体制,勾画与夯实了国民文化面貌。即使是本土的道教文化、东汉末年从印度而来的佛教文化,和近代随着殖民者的坚船利炮扑进中国的基督教与天主教,都积极吸收融合儒家文化特色,实现了在中国的生根发芽。“以科学代宗教”、“以美育代宗教”、“以艺术代宗教”,五四时期的先哲们为我们奉出如许之多的满足我们精神需养的饕餮大餐,其惟愿取宗教而代之。然而,宗教是宗教,科学是科学、美育是美育、艺术还是艺术,即便人们有“杀之而后快”的强烈愿望,也自是“抽刀断水水更流”,当宗教存在的社会根源和阶级根源没有被消灭之际,宗教它还是依然就在那里。中国对宗教本质、意义及作用的认识之路,可以用一路欢歌一路泪水来形容,当形势需要的时候,它就是我们的座上之客,当形势不需要的时候,更多地强调的是宗教的负面功能,以加强科学无神论宣传为由,大力挤占宗教的生存空间,伤害了广大宗教徒的感情,挫伤了他们参与社会主义小康社会建设的积极性,处理不当,甚至会造成逆反情绪,形成社会反对力量的暗流。大禹治水,疏且导之,宗教徒的感情犹如滔滔洪水,堵截戕害始终是不能解决问题,唯有积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应,实现对宗教教义作出有利于建设和谐社会的有益解释,发动宗教徒爱国爱教,参与到社会主义建设当中来,同时切实落实宗教信仰自由政策,依法加强宗教事务管理,实施独立自主自办原则,才不失为解决问题的良策。现存社会主义四国——越南、老挝、朝鲜、古巴,处理宗教问题的经验教训同样值得我们记取。龙生九子,各有不同,马克思主义的伟大理论,诞生了16个鲜红的社会主义国家,而今苏东9兄弟已丢弃马克思主义的信仰,舍弃社会主义与共产主义的追求,各奔赴自己或一帆风顺或命运多舛的前程去了。如今剩余的社会主义国家,吸取共产主义运动史上深刻的历史教训,再也没有产生社会主义国家的“龙头老大”,各国均根据国情,吸纳全球经验,加强全球合作,进行社会发展。在宗教政策方面也没有产生谁对谁的指手画脚,倒是美国这一“世界宪兵”每年发出各国宗教报告,连续指责我国西藏问题、新疆问题以及法轮功问题；指责朝鲜是“宗教压迫最严重的国家”；对于越南,在越南积极加强与美国和梵蒂冈的沟通,并按照他们规定的程序进行宗教改革的基础上,2009年终于摘掉了“宗教压迫严重国家”的帽子；在古巴,浓郁的宗教传统,造就了古巴人民对宗教的特殊感情,在古巴社会主义发展史上,同样也存在过压迫甚至消灭宗教的“严打”时期,然而总体而言,其与梵蒂冈的关系破冰,有利于其在国际上更多的争取同情,有利于改善古美关系,从而更有利于其社会主义建设与发展。梳理四国处理宗教问题的历史,为我们展示了四国多彩的宗教历史画卷,省思其宗教政策,有利于我们更好地理解与坚持马克思主义宗教观,有利于我们在与西方意识形态领域的一场没有硝烟的战争中,防患于未然,修筑思想领域的万里长城。自第一个社会主义国家苏联建立,至今已有近百年的历史,马克思当年预言了宗教随着社会进步必然逐渐消亡的历史命运,我们似乎也已经为宗教准备好了“裹尸之布”。然而,在经济发展、科技昌明、全球化雷声隆隆的今天,宗教却呈现全球发展热潮。适时扭转对宗教及宗教问题的看法,实施与时俱进、适合中国国情、适合国际潮流的宗教决策,是我们今天的的当政者面临的重大课题。社会主义国家处理宗教问题的经验教训,带给当代的中国很多有益的启示：首先,需要正确认识宗教的本质和功能问题,这是关于宗教最深层次和最根本的问题；其次、正确认识与处理宗教与社会主义社会的关系难题,阐释积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应的理论；第三,正确认识与处理宗教信仰与马克思主义信仰的关系问题,辨析宗教信仰与马克思主义信仰的区别,分析宗教信仰对马克思主义信仰提出的严峻挑战；第四,正确认识与处理中国政教关系,反思中国政教关系的处理及对当代中国所谓“官办宗教”的误读；第五,正确认识与处理宗教方面的中美、中梵关系,防止西方的宗教渗透等问题。往左走,抑或往右走?左灯右行,抑或右灯左行?如何选择一条适合中国国情的正确的宗教处理之路?依赖我们理论工作者,以光荣的使命感与历史的责任感,以正确的立场——即“马克思主义的立场”、“人民的立场”、“国家的立场”,来分析社会主义国家处理宗教问题的经验教训,从而为中国特色的社会主义伟大事业,为全面建设小康社会,建设和谐社会、和谐世界、和谐内心来服务。更多还原

【Abstract】 This topic belongs to a part of the system of "Marxist view of religion". The current religious theories and policies of China are all guided by it and it is the mainstream ideology in the field of religion in China, and its importance is self-evident. However, combing the whole "Marxist view of religion", we find that academic has much study on "Marxist view of religion", but is short of integrity, that is, lacking the research on the system of religious theory and practice in socialist countries, and make comprehensive reflection."Marxist view of religion" originated in the religious ideas of Marx and Engels, it started from the beginning of the last century in Soviet Union, deeply rooted there and formed the religious concept of Lenin, Stalin and other leaders. The Chinese Communists continued to practice the religious philosophy of Marx and Engels. Most politicians and academics concentrate on this context to study the course of the development of the Marxist view of religion. However, the truth of history is that the direct impact of the view of Marx Engels and Lenin religion in socialist countries, has not only reached eight socialist countries of Eastern Europe, but reached the four surviving social capitalist countries Vietnam, Laos, North Korea and Cuba.Under the religious view of Marx Engels and Lenin, according to different national conditions, the policy on religion and religious practices of the socialist countries show a rich and colorful historical picture. Therefore, in the comprehensive study of "the system of Marxist view of religion", this can not be ignored. This topic is trying to restore the integrity of the "Marxist view of religion", striving to make up the lack of research in academia, adding bricks and tile for the "religious theory of socialism" Combing and analyzing religious theory, policy and practice of Socialist States, trying to sum up the lessons of Socialist Countries in dealing with religious issues under the current religious theory, and use it by us.Through the research of this topic, we can further clean-up the view of the religious heritage left by the classical writers Marx and Engels in theory; solve the two difficult choices between materialist atheism and religion theism; crack the problem of the relation of socialism and religion; identify role of religion in the socialist transition of Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. In practice, try to analyze what new adaptation should be done on religious policy of Socialist Countries under a new pattern of "two systems" in the era of globalization. In short, it has a positive reference in treating with religious issues carefully under the socialist system in China, in sorting out the theory and practice in dealing with religious issues of the socialist countries in the past and today, summarizing and learning from their successes and failures.This article starts firstly from religious hot in China and the whole word, and the confront reality of "Marx’s religion Extinction" and "religious reviving", and mentioned the following problems:how to treat the religious fervor of the present era? How Socialist Countries to adapt to the global religious revival, and how to deal with them? Whether the Marxist view of religion can guide the religious theory and practice of the socialist countries? Today, as some people criticize, if China’s current policy on religion is the "left" or "right"? Thus, it is even necessary to learn from the world’s religious and cultural awareness. It has a great direct, significant theoretical and practical significance, to Look back and sort out the successes and failures of the socialist countries in dealing with religious issues, and summarize the lessons, for servicing to the religious practice of current socialist China, to China’s participation in global political, economic, cultural and ideological competition.The Marxist view of religion is the fundamental views and opinions on religion of classical writers such as Marx and Engels and their successors, and it is the world outlook and methodology of Marxist political parties recognizing and dealing with religious issues, it originated in the religious ideas of Marx and Engels, and has been developed and practiced by the Communists of various socialists in socialist countries. Marxist view of religion is the a strain of the theoretical system, it has rich content, including the basic points such as the Marxist essence of religion, the development law of religion, the social function of religion and the religious attitude of Marxist political parties. However, it is the "short board" on the study of "Marxist view of religion" in regarding it as the guidance and methodology in our religious understanding and religious practice. But what Marxist view of religion is superior to other religious views is that:it is guided by historical materialism, adheres to the dialectical view, the principle of practical, effective guidance in policy-making and scientific research.The former Soviet Union and Eastern European socialist countries are all have strong religious tradition different from China, in the process of socialist practice, however, they are all impacted profoundly by Marx and Engels’view of religion, especially Marx’s "religion of opium". So once they took the more "left" religious policy apposing and even eliminating religion. Therefore, the religious forces once lowered stance and religious activities turned underground. However, as many religious scientists investigated that "men are religious animals", or as some scholars have mentioned "religion is a way to grasp the world of human beings","religion is the home of spirit ","religion is humanity’s common cultural wealth", We will not argue the authenticity of these propositions, and now probably has formed the following consensus about religion:in today’s society, in the present era, religion is indispensable spirit and substance wealth of people, religion has its law of occurrence and development, religion, the demise of religion is a very long time. The consequences of reversing the law of history-the tension between politics and religion, religion played an important role in the socialism earthquake of Drastic Change. In a sense it can be said that before the drastic changes, it had a "bitter" relationship between socialist state and religion, religious relations were disharmonious, and the undercurrent against the socialist regime surging, if this hostile undercurrent is used by foreign reactionary forces, it may endanger the security and stability of the socialist countries. The people are the creators of history, the masses are the base of society, to suppress the religious needs of creators, the social foundation is instable, the building of socialism has the danger to overturn. The leaders of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe countries, such as Lenin, Stalin, Polish leaders have proposed many useful good measures that is conducive to the harmony of religious relations, about these initiatives, there still exists a lot of contend in academia, such as Lenin’s "religion opium cornerstone theory" and "inferior wine theory" are the first misinterpretation of Marx’s view of religion, and is the culprit that caused the leftist religious practice of the later Soviet successor. So it is necessary to combine and interpret the religious policy and practice of the counties, and restore the truth of history and explore and reflect.The religious policy of New China is from the inheritance of "religious freedom" policy of Communist Party of China in the New Democratic Revolution. However, all in all, we have to say, the religious freedom policy of Chinese Communist Party always gives people a strange feeling of "last resort". Indeed, on the one hand, because there are one-sided "left" understanding of the Marxist view of religion, on the other hand, because in our modern history, especially the Protestant and Catholic have played a bad role as the "pioneers" of the colonists. As Jiang Meng-lin said:"Buddha came to China riding a white elephant, but Jesus Christ riding on the flying shells" Coupling with the powerful religious forces, dynasties have played a huge role to subvert the government in the history of China since ancient times. Therefore, it becomes not difficult to understand that the new Chinese government and even the Chinese people embrace to accept the "national and universal moves" to limit or even eliminate religion. China lacks of religious tradition. Since the Han Dynasty, China "abandon100factions, only respect Confucianism", Confucianism build and maintain the feudal political system of China for thousands of years, outline and consolidate the national cultural landscape. Even the local Taoist culture, Buddhist culture came from India in Eastern Han Dynasty, and the Christianity and the Catholic culture which flew into China with the colonists’ modern gun and boats, all actively absorb the fusion of Confucian cultural characteristics, and take root in China."Replacing religion with science","replacing religion with aesthetic","replacing religion with art", during the May Fourth thinkers provided so many good dinner to raise the spirit of us to replace religion. However, religion is religion, the science is science, the aesthetic is aesthetic, even if people have a strong desire to kill it quickly, but religion is still like the flowing water, when the social roots and class origin of religion has not been eliminated, religion it is still there. You can use sing with tears all the way to describe the road to understand the awareness of religious nature, significance and role in China. When the situation requires, it is our passenger, when the situation does not require, more emphasis on negative function of religion comes out, in order to strengthen the propaganda of scientific atheism, vigorously squeeze the living space of the religion, and hurt the feelings of the majority of religious believers, and dampen the enthusiasm of their participation in the construction of socialist well-off society, if improperly handled, and may even cause cynicism, form the community’s opposition. Da Yu sparse and guide water, the feelings of religious believers, like a flood, the interception and harm can not always solve the problem, only to actively guide religions to adapt to the socialist society, achieve useful explanation of the religious teachings in favor of building a harmonious society, mobilize religious believers patriotism, and to participate in socialist construction, and effectively to implement the religious policy of freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law to strengthen the management of religious affairs, to implement the principle of independence and self, was regarded as good problem-solving.The lessons learned from dealing with religious issues in the existing socialist countries-Vietnam, Laos, North Korea, Cuba, are also worth remembering. Long born nine sons, they are different, and the great theory of Marxism born16red socialist countries, now the nine brothers of Soviet Union and Eastern Europe have discarded Marxism belief and abandoned the pursuit of socialism and communism, all went to their own or smooth or ill-fated future. Today, the remaining socialist countries all learned profound lessons of history of the communist movement and no longer produce the "leader" of the socialist countries, all countries are absorbing the global experience, strengthening global cooperation for social development according to own national circumstances. No one meddle in religious policy, except that the United States as "the world’s policeman" issues the national religion report every year continuously accusing of China’s Tibet and Xinjiang, the Falun Gong issue; accusing of North Korea "the most serious religious oppression state"; for Vietnam, on the basis of Vietnam actively strengthening communication with the United States and did religious reform in accordance with the procedures they prescribe, and finally shook off the hat of religious oppression affected countries in2009; in Cuba, the rich religious traditions created a special religious feelings of the Cuban people, and also existed the term of "strike hard" to oppress or even eliminate religion in the history in the socialism development of Cuba. However, the ice-breaking of its relations with Vatican, is beneficial to win sympathy in the international arena and more conducive to improving the ancient relations with the United States, and thus more conducive to its socialist construction and development. Combing the history of dealing with religious issues in four countries shows us a colorful picture of history, and reflecting on their religious policy will help us better understand and adhere to the Marxist view of religion and do favor of taking preventive measures and constructing the Great Wall of the ideological field in the areas of "a war without guns" with western ideology.It has been nearly hundred years of history so far, from the establishing of the first socialist state Soviet Union. Marx predicted the historical destiny of religion gradually disappearing with social progress. Yes, we seem to have prepared "shroud" for religion. However, today economic develops, science and technology forges ahead, the globalization goes fast, religion on global is booming. It is a major issue facing by the administrator that to reverse the view of religion and religious issues timely, implement religious decision-making on time, suitable for China’s national conditions and the trend of international today. The lessons learned from dealing with religious issues in Socialist countries bring contemporary China a lot of useful insights:Firstly, we need the correct understanding of the nature and function of religion, which is the deepest level and the most fundamental issue of religion; correct understanding and handling the problem of the relationship between religion and socialism, explain to actively guide the theory of religion to adapt to socialist society; Third, correct understanding and handling the relations of religion and belief in Marxism, analyze the difference between religion and belief in Marxism, analyze a serious challenge religious beliefs on the beliefs of Marxism; Fourth, a correct understanding and dealing with the Chinese church-state relations, and reflect on the handling of church-state relations in China and China’s misreading so-called "government-run religion"; Five, a correct understanding and handling of religion Sino-US and Sino-Vatican relations and prevent religious infiltration of the West.Go left or go right? Left light right line, or Right light left line? How to choose a correct road of religious treatment for the Chinese situation? It relies on our theoretical workers analyzing the lessons in dealing with religious issues in socialist countries, with a glorious sense of mission and sense of responsibility to history, in the correct position-"the position of Marxism,"the position of the people","the position of nation", serving for the great cause of socialism, building a moderately prosperous society, and serve to building a harmonious society, harmonious world and harmonious.更多还原