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20世纪上半期山东乡村互助研究

A Research on Murual Aid in Shandong Rural Area in the First Half of the20th Century

【作者】 周婷婷

【导师】 李文海;

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 , 中国近现代史, 2012, 博士

【摘要】 20世纪上半叶,中国农民互助合作的形态处于新旧交替的时期,它既保留着旧式互助的基本特征,又受到新型合作形式的冲击和影响,可以说这一时期是新中国成立后我国农业合作化运动的一个重要的准备阶段。基于“历史是一个不断的过程”的治史观念,我们要深入研究农业合作化问题,就不应该淡忘这段历史。因此,本文以20世纪上半叶山东农民的互助合作为切入点,试图从中观察到近代农民在互助合作过程中的基本性格特征,并对农民合作形式的演变过程进行梳理和理论上的反思,以揭示出影响农民走向集体化的制约因素。近代山东农村的“封闭性”影响着农民在互助合作过程中的“结合力”。农民在在日常生产生活中结成了分散的互助组合,在这种互助组合的内部,农户之间的“结合力”较强;而在对外时互助组合则表现出较强的排他性,为获取村内的公共资源,互助组合内的农户会团结一致与组合外的村民展开争夺。从村落的层面来看,近代山东大多数村落都具有悠久的历史和适宜农业发展的生态环境,在此基础上,村落中的人际关系能够长久地保持和谐稳定的状态。而自然灾害的侵袭则激发了村民的集体防御意识,如山东大部分村落的分布、村民居住的格局以及围墙等公共设施的建立,都与村落的集体安全有着密切的联系。这种集体防御意识的增强在一定程度上有利于村民“村落共同体”意识构建。传统村落并不是绝对封闭的,农民还需通过村外的交往获得自己需要的资源,但大多数农民都走不出狭隘的地域界限,他们的对外交往一般不会超过基层市场的范围。总体而言,山东农村社会的封闭性特征,有助于农民之间建立稳固的人际关系;同时在相对封闭的社会环境下,农民获得社会资源的范围相当有限,为在有限的范围内获得较多的社会资源,与他人展开互助合作便成为许多农民的选择。在互助过程中,农户之间“结合力”的大小也受到社会关系的制约。20世纪上半叶,在山东农村中,宗族对农民旧式互助合作的规定最具明确性和约束力,很多地方都有“同族在土地买卖中具有优先权”、“遇有婚丧仪式,同族之人必须参加”等等规定。不过,近代山东大部分村落的家族势力不强,宗族组织松散,亲缘认同观念有淡化的趋势,这就在一定程度上限制了建立在亲缘关系对农民互助活动的影响,而地域关系在农民互助中的重要性却逐渐凸现出来。除此之外,在农民互助合作中,因业缘而生的各种后天性私人关系也是十分重要关系资源。从互助的主体来看,吸引农民进行互助合作的“结合力”主要是农民现实的需要或利益。20世纪上半叶,山东农民的互助合作是在乡村社会的动荡和贫困中开展的。除了耕地不足、农业生产力水平低下、天灾人祸、婚丧陋俗等村落内的制约因素之外,政府对农村的掠夺、土匪对乡村社会的劫掠式破坏以及商业资本和城市对乡村的掠夺都加重了农民的贫困。在缺少基本的公共设施和社会保障机制的情况下,作为一种在乡村社会关系网络中推进的小规模社会保障,农民之间开展的互助合作就显得尤为必要了。对互助中“结合力”探讨,在逻辑上衍生了本文对农民互助自主性的关注。山东农村旧有的互助形式主要包括婚丧礼仪性互助、农业生产性互助、资金融通性互助、安全防御性互助等。这些互助都是农民“生态理性”的产物,反映了传统农村社会人际关系的“差序格局”,同时其中也普遍存在着“按阶层划分的纵向界限”。在互助过程中,在民间惩罚机制的威慑下,农民须遵守“互惠原则”以及其它与互助相关的传统规定,同时其互助行为受经济理性和道德情感的共同支配。在考察农民旧式互助合作的“交流”时,本文的兴趣集中在互助的主体、互助的程序、互助中特殊的讯号和途径等问题上。近代山东大部分地区土地占有相对分散,村落社区社会分化程度不高,这种情况制约了农民阶级觉悟的萌发,即使在土地占有相对集中的地区,“农民日常道德观也与阶级话语有着巨大的差别”,因而,农民更倾向于以日常生活的逻辑或经验为基础来开展互助活动。关于农民每一次具体互助的流程,我们可以以农业生产性互助为例进行说明。在农民旧式的农业生产互助中,财富、诚信、声望、现实需求以及社会关系(主要是血缘、地缘关系)是互助关系建立前农民需要考虑的几大要素,互助关系建立之后,互助的发展分为两个路径,一是以富人为主导的异质互助,互助的过程存在着一定的剥削性,如换工;一是建立在经济条件相当基础上的同质互助,如搭套、合具等。在山东地区,这两种类型的互助都普遍地存在着,各阶层农户按照自己的需求会理性地选择不同的互助方式。而需求的满足、关系的破裂或是交易时不公平的程度超过了一定的范围都会引发互助关系的终结。20世纪二三十年代,在战争、灾荒和经济危机的交迫下,山东农业经济破败不堪,农村的牲畜、农具、人口大幅度减少,租税、高利贷等封建剥削却更加沉重。互助是农民解决生产、生活困难的手段之一,但农民之间自发的互助效力有限,不能从根本上改变农村经济的状况。为拯救农村危机,国民政府和一些民间团体发起了一场农村合作运动。山东国统区的农村合作运动基本上属于一种由政府主导的强制性的制度安排,国民政府通过自上而下的合作法规的制定、合作指导机构的设置以及对合作组织在经济政策上的扶植,将西方的合作社组织引入到了山东农村,在一定程度上转变了农民互助合作的模式,提高了他们互助合作的经济效益,有利于他们合作意识的形成。但在推动农民从个体经营向集体生产转变的过程中,这种强制性的制度安排存在的弱点也是显而易见的。首先,在推行新型合作组织的过程中,国民政府没有从根本上解决农民的土地问题,彻底地变革农村的生产关系,因而其领导的农村合作运动无法从根本上改变小农农业经营的分散状态,促进农业生产力的发展。其次,合作运动是国民政府单纯用政治力量来推动的,这就使合作社的建立更多地考虑了政府的意愿和制度偏好,容易忽视农民对新型合作互助组织的接受程度和切身利益,从而大大降低了合作社在农村的普及程度和影响程度。再次,合作组织的发展,过分依赖于政府的扶植,缺乏自我发展的能力,再加上受战争和社会经济衰退的影响,国民政府扶植合作社的能力有限,这就极大限制了山东农村合作社的发展。20世纪40年代,中共在山东领导的农民互助合作运动具有解放生产力和改造社会关系的双重意义,从这一点来看,减租减息、反奸清算、土地改革与农民的互助合作实践有着割不断的历史联系,它们共同组成了山东农村集体化初级阶段的历史。在这个历史阶段中,中共一边用革命手段开辟农村社会平均化的局面,一边用互助合作来维系革命的成果。中共对农民合作组织改造的思路是以诱致性制度变迁方式为主,即尊重农民的互助习惯和自愿结合,尽量避免对互助组织内部事务的过多干涉,从而使农民能够充分地发挥自己的能动性和想象力,对旧式互助组织进行改造。在这一过程中,新型的互助组织也不可避免的要受到村落社会地方性制度和社会关系的制约。随着互助组织的发展,农村的社会风气也为之一变,互助互济的社会氛围越来越浓,农民的集体主义思想开始树立。在当时山东的互助合作运动中,中共有意引导农民走长期互助的道路,因而采取了扶植贫农、中农的策略,使贫农、中农树立起了他们在互助组织中的领导地位;同时,中共的政策和宣传、教育手段都向互助组织和社会经济的平均化倾斜,这在无形之中给农民的心理造成了一定压力,使他们在加入互助组织时不得不考虑自己在政治上的得失。在这一过程中个体经济和集体经济之间存在的张力以及行政力量的参与,导致一些农村的互助合作运动出现了偏差。

【Abstract】 In the first half of20th century, the form of farmers’mutual aid and cooperation was in a period of transition from old to new.which not only retained the basic features of the Old mutual aid type, but also was attacked and affected by the new type of mutual aid. We can say that the period was an important preparation to the agricultural Cooperative Movement after the founding of new China. Based on "history is an ongoing process," To study the agricultural co-operation thoroughly, we should not forget the history. Therefore, the article take the Shandong farmers’mutual aid in the first half of20th century as entry point, attempt to observe the basic character of modern farmers in the process of their mutual assistance and cooperation, and from theory to reflect the transformation of small farmers and history of cooperation in countryside. And then reveals the constraints in the process of farmers ’collectivization.The "closed" of modern rural Shandong affected the "binding force" of farmers in the mutual aid and cooperation process. In everyday life and production, farmers formed a scattered mutual aid group in the village, whose "binding force" was very strong. At the same time, the group’s external exclusive was strong, which often competed for public resources with villagers outside the group in their village. From the perspective of the village, most villages in modern Shandong had a long history and the ecological environment which was suitable for agricultural development. On this base, village relationships could maintain a harmonious and stable state in a long time. Natural disasters enhanced the collective defense awareness of the villagers. The distribution of most Shandong villages, the living pattern of villagers, the establishment of walls and other public facilities, all reflected the Shandong people’s awareness of collective defense, which was conducive to the construction of the "village community". The traditional village was not absolutely closed; farmers also need to get resources through external contacts. But most of the farmer’s coule not get out of the narrow geographical boundaries, and their external relations would not exceed the scope of the market at the grassroots level. Overall, the closed characteristics of Shandong rural society was conducive to the establishment of a solid relationship between farmers; and the same time,in order to get more social resources in a very limited range, many farmers expanded mutual aid.The"binding force"in the process of farmers’mutual aid was also restricted by social relations. In the first half of20th century, the provisions on the farmers’old-fashioned cooperation and mutual assistance from clan were the most clear and binding in rural Shandong. Many places had provisions such as "The family from the same clan have priority in the sale of land","If some family organize wedding or funeral, other family from the same clan must be present" and so on. However, in the first half of the20th century, under the influence of socio-economic conditions and cultural environment, in most villages of Shandong families were not strong. Clan Organizations were loosely, Phylogenetic identity Concepts trended weakening, which limited the farmers’mutual aid establishing on the basis of Phylogenetic relationship. As well as, the importance of the geographical relationship in the farmers’ mutual aid gradually emerged. In addition, Karmic relationship was also an Important resource in famers’mutal aid.From the principal of mutual aid, the "binding force" attracting farmers to participate in mutual aid was mainly the farmers’real needs or interests. In the first half of20th century, Shandong farmers’mutual aid carried out in under the condition of stagnation, instability and poverty. In addition to some inherent constraints such as the shortage of arable land, low levels of agricultural productivity, natural disasters, and vulgar s of wedding and funeral. The plundering of government in rural areas, the destruction of the bandits on the rural society and the plundering from commercial capital and city all made farmers poorer. When lack basic public facilities and social security mechanisms, as a small-scale Social Security implemented in the rural social network, the mutual aid among farmers was particularly necessary.Discussion of the binding force in farmers’ mutual aid, derived for the concerns of the article in autonomy of farmers’ mutual aid logically. The old type of mutual aid in rural Shandong including Ceremonial in weddings and funerals, Agricultural mutual aid in production, financial mutual aid intermediation, Security mutual aid and so on. These mutual aid were all the product of farmers’"ecological rationality", and they also reflected the "A pattern of sequential differences" in the traditional rural social relationships. At the same time, there were "class boundaries" in this mutual aid. In the process of mutual aid, farmers must comply with the principle of reciprocity and other traditional institutions in the deterrence of Civil punishment mechanism.while,The farmers’ mutual aid behavior was dominate by their economic rationality and common moral sentiments.The interest of this article is concentrated in the main body of mutual aid, the procedures of mutual aid,the special signal and means in the process of mutual aid, When it Investigates the "exchange" of farmers’ old-fashioned cooperation and mutual assistance. The land tenure was relatively scattered and Community differentiation level was not high in most places in modern rural Shandong, Which restricted the germination of the peasant class consciousness.Even in the place where land tenure was relatively concentrated," There was a huge difference between farmers’ day-to-day morality and class discourse ". Farmers were more inclined to carry out their mutual aid based on logic or experience of everyday life. We can explain the process of farmers’ mutual aid through the example of mutual aid in agricultural production. In the farmers’ old mutual aid in agricultural production, Wealth, integrity, reputation real needs elations (kinship, geopolitical relations) were several elements in the establishment of mutual aid. After the Mutual aid relationship established, its development would be divided into two paths: one was led to the rich heterogeneity mutual aid. There was a certain amount of exploitation in the process of this mutual aid; other was homogeneity mutual aid building on the basis of the same economic conditions. The two types of mutual aid generally existed in rural Shandong. All sectors of the farmers would select different mutual aid in a rational manner in accordance with their needs. When needs were met, the relationship broken down or Unfair transactions exceeded a certain range, mutual aid relationship would end.In the1920s and1930s, forced by the war, famine and economic crisis, Shandong Agricultural Economics became dilapidated; Livestock, farm tools and the population reduced significantly, the feudal exploitation such as the taxation, usury, etc., was heavier. Mutual aid was a mean by which farmers could solve problems in production and life but the effectiveness of mutual aid between farmers was limited, and it could not change the economic situation fundamentally in rural areas. In order to save the rural crisis, the national government and civil society began to introduce Western system to rural.Farmers’cooperative movement basically was a mandatory government-led institutional arrangements in Kuomintang-controlled areas of Shandong. The National Government introduced the cooperative organizations from the West into the countryside, through top-down reform, such as making laws, setting the lead agency, economic support and so on, which changed the old mutual aid of the farmers to a certain extent, improved the economic benefits in the process of mutual aid and was conducive to the formation of farmers’ cooperative awareness.However,in the process of promoting farmers’ shift from the self to the collective production, the weaknesses of this compulsory system arrangements was obvious. First of all, in the process of implementation of the new cooperative organizations, the National Government did not solve the problem of farmers’land fundamentally and change the relations of production in rural areas completely.So the farmers’cooperative movement leaded by The KMT government could not change the dispersion state of the smallholder agriculture business fundamentally and promote the development of agricultural productivity. Second,the cooperative movement was driven by political forces simply, which makes the establishment of cooperatives more consider the government’s willingness and system preferences, easy to overlook farmers’acceptance and vital interests, and thus greatly reduce the penetration and impact of cooperatives in rural areas. Third, the development of cooperative organizations over-reliance on government support, lacked self-development capabilities. In addition, with the impact of war and socio-economic decline, the ability of National Government in fostering cooperatives was very limited. Therefore, the development of rural cooperatives had been limited.In the1940s, in Shandong led by Chinese Communists relations a double meaning in liberating the productive forces and transforming the social relations’ rom this point of view,the movement of reduction of rent and interest、land reform and anti-rape liquidation were closely linked with the practice of the mutual aid and cooperation movement. They common composed the history of the initial stage of Shandong’s rural collectivization. In this historical period, one side, the open up the average of rural society by Revolution means; on the other side, the CPC maintain the achievements of the revolution by the mutual aid and cooperation movement. The thinking of CPC in the transformation of the farmers’ cooperative organizations was in the way of induced Institutional Change. That was should respect for the habits of farmers’ mutual aid and voluntary union, try to avoid too much interference in the internal affairs of the mutual aid organizations. So that farmers could fully play their initiative and imagination, and they could transform and Consolidate mutual e organizations on the basis of old mutual aid.In this process, the new type of mutual aid organizations would inevitably be subject to the constraints of the local system of village society and social relations. With the development of mutual aid organizations, the general mood of society also began to change, Farmers’ collective ideology began to establish.In the Shandong mutual cooperation movement, the CPC intended to guide the farmers to undertake long-term mutual aid.Thus, the CPC had adopted the policies that foster the poor and middle peasants,and establish those peasants’ leadership position in the mutual aid organization; At the same time, under the collective goal, the Communist Party’s propaganda, education means and policy all inclined to the average of the mutual aid organizations and socio-economic which put psychological pressure on to farmers invisibly and made they have to consider their own political gains and losses When they joined the mutual aid organizations.In the process, the tension between the individual economy and collective economy and the participation of the executive power in the process, resulting in mutual cooperation movement of some rural areas had gone wrong.

【关键词】 互助山东乡村社会
【Key words】 Mutual aidShandong ProvinceRural society
  • 【网络出版投稿人】 山东大学
  • 【网络出版年期】2012年 12期
  • 【分类号】K26;F321.2
  • 【被引频次】3
  • 【下载频次】831
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