清代晋北地区土地利用及驱动因素研究

【作者】 张青瑶；

【导师】 王社教；

【作者基本信息】 陕西师范大学 ， 历史地理学， 2012， 博士

【摘要】 土地利用是全球变化最直接、最重要的表现,是研究自然与人文过程的理想切入点。土地利用/土地覆被变化(LUCC)研究计划的提出,使土地利用变化研究成为目前全球变化研究的前沿和热点,其中对生态环境脆弱区的土地利用变化研究具有重要的理论和实践意义。晋北地区位于我国黄土高原东北部,属于北方农牧交错带,地形地貌复杂,生态环境脆弱。本文主要工作包括复原清代晋北地区农业土地利用过程和变化,并从多方面、多角度对土地利用变化的驱动因素进行深入分析。为了更好地研究这一主题,本文在充分讨论区域土地的自然属性和社会经济属性、土地登记制度等相关问题的基础上,对区域土地利用过程、变化展开讨论,从农作物的种植与分布角度展现土地利用的具体状态,并从生计多样性的角度分析土地利用方式的区域差异,最后,对区域土地利用变化驱动力进行深入讨论。本文有步骤、有铺垫地对清代晋北地区土地利用过程、变化及驱动因素问题进行讨论,更是以土地利用为平台展开的人地关系探讨。土地的自然属性与土地利用关系密切。从自然环境的常态和自然灾害角度对区域自然环境进行宏观把握并分析区域特征,初步分析该环境对于区域土地利用尤其是农业生产的影响。清代晋北地形地貌复杂多样,气候较今寒冷,降水山地多于平地,年季分配不均,境内水环境、土壤、植被等区域差异表现明显。自然灾害讨论中主要对旱灾进行统计分析,认为旱灾发生频次整体平稳中稍有下降；旱灾发生等级稍呈上升趋势,并将重建旱灾序列与现有雨季序列比对,结果呈现一致性,较好说明清代晋北气候特征及变化。作为区域土地利用的重要背景,本文对区域土地关系加以关注。研究发现：清代晋北官田、民田格局逐渐形成后出现一些变化,主要表现为卫所屯田、赡军地、牧场地等官田民地化；不同区域内至清末出现土地买卖频繁的现象,但原因不同；认为清代(至少在清末)晋北存在永佃制,但分布具有区域性,并且存在不完全永佃和地域特色的永佃；认为土地分配与租佃形态存在区域差异,分成租制比较普遍,不能以单一的因素来解释租佃关系的形成；清政府对土地买卖、租佃的管理主要体现在契税的征收,国家层面的管理需要和地方实情相结合,会受到地方整体环境的制约。晋北土地关系特征反映了晋北农业经济的落后,同时与区域生态环境密不可分,会对区域土地利用产生影响。土地登记制度及田赋税额确定内容的讨论,主要涉及明清山西土地清丈与土地登记制度的演变、税额确定以及田赋征收的区域自主性等问题。通过由明至清山西地区土地清丈、政府对于土地登记的管理以及地方社会的自主性等问题的讨论,对明清山西土地登记制度提出若干看法,包括对于明代万历山西清丈的认识,对于明清山西土地登记制度的认识,以及对于山西册载田赋数据的评价。其中比较核心的观点是认为明代山西折亩广泛存在,清代继续延续这种习惯,并逐渐形成折亩基础上的级差赋税。田赋数据变化可以反映土地利用变化趋势,目前只能对部分州县土地数字尝试修订。在此基础上,对清代晋北地区耕地利用的时空分布进行探讨,包括来自田赋数据的整体考察和来自部分县级数据修订的区域考察。整体讨论了县级册载田赋数据的数值与分布,数据显示清代晋北地区耕地利用的变化不大,土地垦殖在乾隆时期达到峰值,没有继续增长,稍有下降,整体波动不大。又在相关可行性分析的基础上,对部分州县耕地数据进行修订考察,结果显示修订后的明清数据与1953年数据较为符合,各县数据变化趋势基本一致,同各时期田赋税亩相比,要高于田赋税亩的可靠性。其后文章对时间断面下的土地垦殖率和人均耕地进行分析,总体显示本次修订是较为可信的。认为这种修订结果一定程度上反映了区域土地利用特征,不具有全面性但具有一定区域代表性。清代晋北地区土地垦殖过程总体分为明末清初的土地抛荒期,清初至乾隆时期的土地复垦期以及乾隆以后土地垦殖的下降期。清代晋北农作物种植受区域地理环境的影响比较显著,作物种类较少,种植结构单一。黍、稷、粟、粱等传统作物普遍种植,麦类作物种植比例不高,很少种宿麦。莜麦、荞麦和胡麻是本区特色作物,种植广泛。稻类作物只在黄河、滹沱河、桑干河沿岸略有种植。随着马铃薯、玉米等美洲作物的传入,晋北的作物种植结构发生改变,尤其体现在马铃薯的引种及发展方面。晚清罂粟在晋北地区的广泛种植是作物种植结构改变的另一个突出表现,罂粟种植屡禁不止,利益的驱动、人为因素等是作物种植结构发生改变的重要因素。文末对清代晋北作物种植制度进行总结。从民众生计多样性的角度分析了清代晋北地区土地利用方式的区域差异。农业方面充分展现了土地利用区域差异的普遍存在,乡民能够因地制宜的发展农业生产。清代晋北地区的林地主要分布在晋西北管涔山、芦芽山、五台山等山区,晋西北山区农林转化比较突出,山区乡民已经认识到滥砍滥伐、毁林开荒等带来的严重影响,采取了一些护林措施。牧业方面,晋北大朔地区、晋西北宁武、保德等地、五台山地区等都广泛分布草地资源,牧业发达,民众多以牧养为生,充分体现研究区域农牧交错的地域特征。清代晋北地区煤炭资源丰富,雁北、晋西北、五台山等地都广泛分布,与乡民生活息息相关。晋北土盐主要分布于大同盆地和忻定盆地,土盐的生产及销售与区域土地利用问题关系密切。采集业等其他营生方式的选择体现了人类活动对环境的适应调整,环境压力下的人口外流、出口谋生行为也是本区土地利用状况的一种反映。文章最后从自然因素和人文因素两个大类讨论了清代晋北土地利用的驱动因素问题。关于自然因素的讨论主要从自然常态因素和自然灾害两方面展开论述,人文因素主要从土地垦殖政策、卫所行政化、田赋制度、人口、战争、民族、宗教、风俗等方面进行分析。论述中注意把握两个问题,一是所考虑的因素是否具有驱动力,二是如何驱动,驱动力程度如何。研究认为种种人文因素都要落脚于自然因素之上,与之发生综合,作用于土地利用,充分显示晋北地区自然因素的制约作用,这属于第一层面,第二个需要关注的层面是制度政策方面的驱动,晋北地方土地利用对于这些政策的实施显现出其应有的敏感性,第三个层面来自于人口、战争等方面的影响,民族、宗教、风俗习惯等社会文化方面的驱动因素属于第四个层面。历史时期土地利用变化的驱动因素是复杂多样的,这种复杂不仅来源于驱动因子的多样,还在于作用机制的复杂,往往并不是某种单一的驱动因子孤立地对土地利用发生作用。更多还原

【Abstract】 Land use is the most direct and important representation of global change and it is an ideal perspective to study the process of physical and human evolution. According to the program of Land Use and Land Cover Change (LUCC), land Use Change became the forefront and hot spot of global change research. And the research which focuses on the ecological fragile districts plays an important role both in theoretical and practical significance. The northern Shanxi province located in the northeast of Loess Plateau of China and belongs to the northern agro-pastoral transitional zone with complex landscape and fragile ecological environment. This dissertation mainly recovers the process and change of land use in Northern Shanxi Provence during Qing Dynasty, and analyzes in depth of the driving forces of land use change from multiple aspects and perspectives.In order to better research the theme, this dissertation expatiates the process and change of regional land use based on the fully discussion of related problems, such as the physical and social-economical attributes of land, and regional land registration system. Then it indicates the specific state of land use from the aspect of planting and distribution of crops, and analyses the regional differences according to the livelihood diversity. Finally, the driving forces of regional land use change is discussed in depth.The physical attribute of land are closely related to land use. From the perspective of the normality of natural environment and the instability of natural disasters, it holds the general characters of regional environment, and primarily analyses the restrictive effect of environment on regional land use, particularly in agricultural production. The discussion of natural disasters mainly focuses on the statistical analysis of drought, it indicates that drought frequency showed a stable trend as a whole with slightly decrease, while the drought level slightly raised. The result showed coherence in comparing the drought sequence with the rainy sequence, which better described the character and change of climate in Northern Shanxi Province during the Qing Dynasty.It’s necessary to pay more attention to the regional agrarian relations, since it is an important background of regional land use. The research indicates many views. The changes, after the taking shape of official and people’s land patterns, included the transform of official land to people’s land, such as land of military control administration, land of supporting for the army, grass field, school land, etc. And this would impact the data of land tax in historical documents. The phenomenon of land sale frequently emerged in different regions for different reasons in the end of Qing Dynasty. Pawning land was popular in Northern Shanxi Province, and the frequency of land sale both reflected the restriction of regional environment on agricultural production and impacted the way and process of land use. It indicates that there had existed permanent tenancy in land use in Northern Shanxi during Qing Dynasty, which distributed regionally. There also existed incomplete permanent tenancy and regional permanent tenancy. Permanent tenancy impacted the increase of producing positivity of renter and land use mode. It also suggests that there were regional differences in land allocation and tenancy, which was a complex issue that related to regional environment and productivity, and couldn’t explain the formation of tenancy relationship in a single factor. The management of land sale and tenancy by government mainly shows on the assessing upon deed tax. The management of country lever needed to be combined with the local fact, and would be restricted by regional environment.On the discussion of the land registration system and the content of land tax, it mainly relates to the issues of evolution of the land measurement and registration system, the determination of land tax and its regional self-determination in Shanxi Province during Ming and Qing Dynasty. According to the discussion of the above, I propose a number of observations, including the understand of land measurement in Shanxi in Wanli Period of Ming Dynasty and the land registration system in Ming and Qing Dynasty, and the evaluation of land tax data in historical books. The main idea is that the discount acres widespread in Shanxi during Ming Dynasty and continued in Qing Dynasty. It gradually led to the differential taxation.Then, the spatial and temporal distribution of land use in Northern Shanxi Province during the Qing Dynasty is interpreted; it includes the entire inspection of land tax data and the regional survey of part of the county-level data revision. The overall discussion of the data and distribution of county-level land tax data shows little change in land use in Northern Shanxi Province during the Qing Dynasty, and land reclamation reached its peak in Qianlong Period and slightly decreased afterword with an overall stability. On the analysis of the relevant feasibility, arable land data of part counties are revised, which finally results that the revised data of Ming and Qing was accord with the1953data, and the trend of county data was basically the same, with higher reliability than land tax acres according to the other periods. Based on the analysis of land reclamation rate under time series and per capita arable land, it proved the authenticity of this revision. In some extent, the revision reflects the character of regional land use, with some regional representation rather than comprehensive one.The regional geographical environment had significant effect on crops planting, so the types of crops were few, and the planting structure was simple in Northern Shanxi during Qing Dynasty. Traditional crops, such as broomcorn millet, millet, grain, sorghum, etc. were widely grown, while wheat crops were in small proportion and winter wheat was few. Naked oats, buckwheat and benne were the characteristic crops and had extensive planting. Rice was only slightly planted along the Yellow River, Hutuo River and Sanggan River. With the introduction of American crops such as potatoes, corn, crop planting structure in northern Shanxi had changed, particularly in the introduction and development of the potatoes. The extensive planting of the opium poppy in Northern Shanxi Province in late Qing Dynasty was another outstanding evidence of crop planting structure change. Cultivation of opium poppy was eliminated after repeating forbiddance, and the important factor of crop planting structure change was interests and anthropic factors. The summary in the end of the text is a cropping system in North Shanxi Province during Qing Dynasty.From the perspective of livelihood diversity of people, it analyses the regional differences of land use patterns in Northern Shanxi Province during Qing Dynasty. Regional differences of land use were fully demonstrated on agriculture, and the villagers developed agricultural production in a way of adapting to local conditions. Woodland mainly distributed in the mountainous areas of Northwest in Northern Shanxi Province during the Qing Dynasty, such as Guanqin, Luya, and Wutai. The transformation of forestry into agriculture was significance in mountainous areas in Northwest and mountainous villagers had realized the serious effect of deforestation and land reclamation, and they had taken some measures to protect forest. Animal husbandry was popular in Dashuo of Northern Shanxi, Ningwu, Baode and Wutai Mountain area of Northwest Shanxi, because of widely distributed grassland resources. And people mostly lived by herding animals. Thus it fully reflected the geographical character of regional agro-pastoral transitional zone. The coal resources were rich in of Northern Shanxi Province in the Qing Dynasty with a wide distribution in Yanbei, Northwest Shanxi, Wutai Mountain and other places, which was closely related to the living of villagers and was one of the important livelihoods in Northern Shanxi Province during Qing Dynasty. Alkaline salt distributed in the Datong Basin and the basin of Northern Shanxi. Its production and sales were relevant with regional land use. The choice of the gathering industry and other livelihood reflected the adjustment of human activities adapting on the environment. The population outflow under the ambient pressure and the export behavior to earn a living were also reflections of regional land utilization.Finally, this dissertation explores for the driving factors of land use from the two major perspectives of natural and human factors in Northern Shanxi during the Qing Dynasty. The discussion on natural factors is discussed from the perspective of the normality of natural environment and the instability of natural disasters. The human factors is analyzed from the aspects of land resettlement policy, military control administration, land tax system, population, war, ethnic, religious, and custom. And tow issues are mainly focused during the discussion. Firstly, whether the driving force of the considering factors was really effective? Secondly, how did the factors drive and in what extent? The study suggests that the various human factors must be settled above the natural factors and interact with each other, finally impact land use, which fully displays the role of natural factors in Northern Shanxi Province. This belongs to the first level. The second level concerns about the system-policy driver, the local land use revealed the sensitivity on the implementation of these policies in Northern Shanxi Province. The third level come from the aspects of population, war, and others, while the fourth level is the driving factor of socio-cultural aspects, such as ethnicity, religion, customs, and etc. The driving factors of land use change was complex and diverse in historical periods, this complexity not only came from the variety of driving factors, but also the complex mechanism of action. And it wasn’t just one single driving factor in effecting land use.更多还原