【作者】 陈晓聪；

【导师】 何勤华；

【作者基本信息】 华东政法大学 ， 法律史学， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 本文所理解的“法”,是指一种在人类长时间的生产与生活中形成的约束人们之行为的社会规范,这种规范并且是由社会公共权力的强制力保证实施。它并不仅限于国家法,也不是阶级社会所特有的现象,而是与人类社会共始终的。在此种“法”的语境下,宗教权力也是社会公共权力之一种,它在其长时期内所形成的内部规范也具有法的性质,尤其是如基督教、伊斯兰教和佛教这样的制度性宗教。本文所称的佛教法是在“宗教法”的维度下进行考察的,首先,宗教法与世俗法是不同的法律体系。所谓的“宗教法”是指:“不是由于个人的国籍或住所,或所在的特定领土,而是由于其宗教信仰,与个人相联系的法律体系的通称。”宗教法具有属人性等特性,是对宗教信徒进行管理的法律体系。其次,佛教法作为宗教法之一种,与基督教教会法和伊斯兰法等其他宗教法也有所不同。结合其他宗教法的定义及佛教法的特质,将佛教法定义为:“由佛陀和僧团制定而为世俗政权承认的信徒个人行为规范和僧团管理规范的总称。”本文所研究的中国古代佛教法是在宗教法和佛教法的语境下进行的,是从东汉佛教传入直到清末这一时间段,此时期的佛教法与政教合一国家的佛教法也有区别。与阿育王时期以及现今某些以佛教为国教的国家不同,中国古代并未形成明显的世俗政权与佛教政教合一或者将佛教定为国教的状况,佛教法是一种区别于国家法的习惯法、民间法,但是也得到世俗政权对内部立法权和司法权的认可(除了个别法难时期)。各朝代基本的国家法与佛教法的管辖范围便是,僧人犯奸、盗、杀、妄等重罪由世俗法律和佛教法共同管辖外,其余僧人的犯罪交由僧官依照“僧制和内律”即佛教法进行处置。到了元朝更是大大提高了佛教法的地位,此时的僧官不仅管理宗教事务,还管理民政事务,更重要的是又管理刑法诉讼。元律规定,僧、道、儒间发生诉讼,只准三家主管衙司会同审问,不许官府介入。僧徒与民众间发生财产纠葛,由僧司会同官府审理。因此,本文所研究的中国古代佛教法主要是在习惯法和民间法的角度进行的,并且都受了国家的认可,某些特殊朝代如元朝将佛教法的管辖范围扩大到了涉僧事务的俗务管理。本文第一章着重介绍中国古代佛教法的基本理论。佛教法是由佛陀和僧团制定而为世俗政权承认的信徒个人行为规范和僧团管理规范的总称。原始佛教法是遵循自然法由佛陀所制定并且为世俗法所承认的,中国佛教法的效力渊源来自于两部分,一是佛教内部立法权的确立,此为佛教法立法权的继承。由于佛陀制定原始佛教法时制定的“随方毗尼”的“适宜”原则,使得因时因地制宜创设的信徒和僧团管理法具有法律效力,是为佛陀所承认的。于是中国化的“僧制”和丛林清规便具有佛教法的效力,尤其是丛林清规是中国化的禅宗取得佛教法立法权的体现;二是世俗政权的承认。佛教法在中国发展的各个时期中,除了个别法难时期,都得到了世俗统治者关于内部立法权和司法权的认可,元代甚至规定了佛教僧官对世俗事务的管辖权,使得僧官融立法权、司法权、宗教权于一身。佛教法又分为佛教法律思想和佛教法律制度两个方面,法律思想是佛教经典中所体现的佛教的基本教义、哲学观念以及价值体系的综合,例如平等观念、和谐观念、民主观念、因果轮回观、忏悔观等等,这在文章的第五章和第六章中有所涉及。佛教法律制度又分为两个方面,一是规范僧徒个人行为的法律,包括原始佛教律藏中对个人行为的规范和中国化佛教中丛林清规关于个人行为的规范,这在本文第三章和第四章中关于僧侣个人的行为中有论述,在第六章中关于僧侣犯罪及惩罚中也有相关的阐述;二是规范僧团的法律,包括原始佛教中对僧团行为的规范,例如灭诤等;以及中国化佛教中丛林清规关于寺院管理的规定,例如寺院的行政管理法、寺院民商经济法等,这在本文的第三章和第四章中有所论述。中国古代佛教法是具备一系列法律要素的,有完备的法哲学、注释和评论法学、法律官员等。而且其内容涉及到行政管理法、民商和经济法、环境保护和刑法等诸多方面,系统而完备。其法源主要是印度的《摩奴法典》、原始佛教法的各部“广律”、移植嫁接时期的“僧制”、中国化时期和稳定发展时期的“禅院清规”、以南山律宗为代表的佛教法注释法学派的各种“注疏”。本文第二章着重讲述中国古代佛教法的历史概况。本文研究的中国古代佛教是从东汉至清末这一时期。中国古代佛教法的发展是与佛教的发展息息相关,并与社会的政治、经济、文化有密切联系,基于此,笔者用历史轴来表述佛教法的历史发展。横轴是佛教发展的外部力量,包括几种社会博弈的力量,他们是以历代皇帝为代表的政治权力、以道教为代表的宗教权力、以士大夫为代表的文化权力。纵轴便是佛教自身的成长道路,分为三个时期:移植嫁接时期、中国化时期和稳定发展时期。此三个时期是对应着佛教法发展的特点进行划分的。正是这些力量的互动才造就了中国化佛教法的特点。整个佛教法的发展是仅仅围绕着一个主线,那就是顺应中国社会的环境,作出适宜的变化,是逐渐中国化的过程。本文第三章便是着重介绍佛教寺院行政管理法。首先介绍了僧团制度的基本内容:僧众的分类和来源等。其次,佛教寺院的行政管理制度主要体现在住持制度和执事僧制度上,形成的是以住持为塔头、执事僧和杂物僧为中层塔身、全寺僧众为底座的金字塔式的管理模式。最主要的是行政管理法体现在几个方面:一是佛教寺院公共事业管理法,包括山林管理的山寮规约、寺院学校管理的讲堂和禅堂规约、寺院招待所管理的旦过堂规约、寺院养老院管理的耆旧堂规、寺院医院管理的省行堂规等。二是佛教法中的户籍管理的剃度规约,它与世俗度牒制度有诸多相通之处。除此之外,佛教寺院行政管理法与世俗法律有着诸多联系,集中体现在三个制度上,即三纲制度、僧官制度、以五山十刹制度为代表的三层等级制度。第四章着重介绍的是佛教寺院民商经济法。其中寺院民商法主要有寺院土地与房屋管理法、佛教僧侣私人财产权制度、佛教僧侣继承的拍卖法——“估唱”以及蓄妻现象。佛教寺院商业的发展有诸多类型:集市、租赁、类似银行的“无尽藏”、寺院高利贷——“长生库”、拍卖的“估唱”制度等。寺院经济管理法主要体现在《库房规铭》上,主要有监察制度、会计制度、税收制度和募捐制度。在介绍这些制度之时,笔者还通过案例分析其与世俗法律的互动。最重要的是分析佛教的土地经营模式以及僧人财产占有模式、寺院商业的发展是如何规避原始佛教法的规定的,通过这些规避措施,使得佛教经济和运作模式呈现了极强的中国化特征。第五章着重介绍佛教关于环境保护的理念和规约。其中佛教关于生态保护的理念主要体现在“缘起论”和“无情有性”说,是与西方的“深层生态学”相通的。佛教关于动物保护的理念主要是基于动物与人具有相通的感受,而且如果杀生会导致诸多的报应,以因果关系来从思想上规范人们的行动,在具体的保护动物的法律方面则有护生规约。佛教法中的护生规约与西方的动物福利法在立法的理念和条文规范上都有诸多的相通之处。第六章着重介绍佛教法中的刑法规范。佛教徒要遵守的强制性规范主要体现在三个方面:一是犯了佛教规定的“性”罪即“四波罗夷”罪——杀、盗、淫、妄的话,既要受到佛教法摈除僧团的处罚,也是要受到世俗法的处罚的。关于世俗惩罚此四类犯罪,以清代案例来进行分析。二是犯了除“四波罗夷”性罪之外的“遮罪”,一般是通过各式的忏悔法可以悔罪的。之所以将忏悔作为悔罪的方法是与佛教的特性所决定的。三是佛教徒若犯罪死后是要受到地狱的惩罚的,这是类似于自然法的惩罚方式。这种惩罚方式对佛教徒是有约束力的,既是对现世惩罚的延续,也是对现世未惩罚的补充,通过这种方式可以达到处罚上的平等及公平正义。第七章是文章的结语部分,主要探讨两个问题,这也是本文一直贯穿的理论主线,那就是佛教法的中国化以及对当代的影响。其中佛教法的中国化主要体现在立法权、立法技术、立法理念和立法形式上的中国化。中国古代佛教法是因时因地制宜进行立法的典范,充分遵循了社会发展的规律,对现代社会的立法理念和技术等也是有诸多的影响和可资借鉴之处的。例如其僧团管理中的民主理念;寺院经济发展中形成的资本观念、勤劳节俭和慈善布施的理念;与自然和谐相处的生态观;对僧侣犯罪的忏悔的刑罚观念等。现代社会的法律在立法理念和法律实践中与中国古代佛教法存在着一些相通之处,以上这些理念和做法都是可以为现代社会所用的。更多还原

【Abstract】 In the context of this article, the law refers to the regulation formed in manufacture and living fields of human being society and carried out by the public authority , which is a criterion of conduct with compulsion .It doesn’t mean only state law or the particular phenomenon which only in class society, and there is the law when there is human being society . Because religious power is one of the public authority, so the norm in religion is also the law ,especially the institutional religion such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.The Buddhist law is one of the Religious laws. First, The religious legal system is different with secular legal system. It is a general term of legal system which connected with the believers with religious faith, not connected with the nationality, residence or particular territory. Second, the Buddhist law is different with Other religious law such as Islamic law and canon law. Seeing the definition of other religious law and the stamp of the Buddhist law, the article defines the Buddhist law. The Buddhist law is the general name of the rules of the personal action of monks and nuns and the administrative regulations of the monastery, which is formulated by the Buddha or the sangha and acknowledged by the state.The ancient Chinese Buddhist law is in the context of the religious law and the Buddhist law and in the period from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the End of Qing Dynasty. There are not fusion of Buddhism and politics in ancient China which is different with AS′OKA period and some South East Asia states in which Buddhism is the state religion. The Buddhist law in ancient china is the custom law and folk law and the internal legislative power and the jurisdiction power of the Buddhist law is acknowledged by the state during each period in China but special time. The national law and the Buddhist law has the jurisdiction of monks’conduct such as killing, stealing, having sex, or misrepresenting one’s meditative powers. Besides these, other conducts of monks are guided by the Buddhist law. In the Yuan dynasty the position of the Buddhist law has been stepped up and the clerical officials guide monastery affairs, secular affairs especially criminal court actions. The law of the Yuan dynasty demands if monks ,Taoists and Confucians have issues,they are interrogated by the three clerical officials and interference of authorities is forbidded. And if monks and laymen dispute at property,clerical and secular officials will interrogate together. So, the ancient Chinese Buddhist law is the custom law and the folk law and has acquired the force of law by the state, and in some dynasty such as the Yuan Dynasty the scope of the Buddhist law enlarges to secular affairs.The chapterⅠintroduces the basic theory of the ancient Chinese Buddhist law. The Buddhist law is the general name of the rules of the personal action of monks and nuns and the administrative regulations of the monastery, which is formulated by the Buddha or the sangha and acknowledged by the state. The primitive Buddhist law is formulated by the Buddha who followed the natural law and acknowledged by the state law. The power of the Chinese Buddhist law origins from two parts: First is the establishment of the internal legislative power which inherits from the primitive Buddhist law. Because the primitive Buddhist law has the principle of“being suitable”formulated by the Buddha , so the administrative regulations of the monks and monastery has the law power as soon as it is suitable with the time and circumstances. Because of this, Baizhang commandments means Chan school’s legislative power. The second is acknowledged by the state. The internal legislative power and the jurisdiction power of the Buddhist law is acknowledged by the state during the each period in China but special time. The Yuan Dynasty had even stipulated the Buddhism monk official to the common custom business’s jurisdiction, which caused the monk official to melt the legislative power, the jurisdiction power and the religious power into a body.The Buddhist law also divides into the Buddhist legal thought and the Buddhism legal system .The legal thought is Buddhism’s basic religious doctrine which, the philosophy idea as well as value system’s synthesis in the Buddhism classics manifests, for example the equal idea, the harmonious idea, and democratic idea, causality, repentance and so on which refers in the fifth and sixth chapter. The Buddhist legal regime divides into two aspects. First is the standard clergy personal behavior’s law which in the primitive Buddhist law and Chinese Baizhang commandments ,this will be introduced in the in in chapterⅢ,ⅣandⅥ. The second is administrative regulations of the monastery which including the primitive Buddhist law’s rules such as the method how to solve the monks’controversies and divergences,also including the rules how to manage the monastery in Baizhang commandments such as administrative rules、monastery civil law and economical law which in chapterⅢandⅣ.The ancient Chinese Buddhist law has a series of legal essential factors, and it has the complete jurisprudence of law , the annotation and the commentary of legal science,the legal officials and so on. And it can be classificated in the administrative law, the civil and economic rules and regulations, the environmental protection law and the criminal law and so on. The sources of it is the Vinayapitaka of primitive Buddhism, the strict rules for monks when there is absent of complete translations of the Vinayapitaka in the period of“Transplant”and“Graft”, the Baizhang commandments in the period of sinicizatin and the stable development .The last source is the the explanatory notes and commentaries of the Dharmaguptaka school, such as Daoxuan’s Sifenlüshanfan buque xingshichao which are abridgements and emendations to the Four-Part Regulations.The chapterⅡexpounds the general situation of Buddhist history. The development of the ancient Buddhism law has close connection with the Buddhism and also with the politics, the economy and the culture of the social circumstances. The author indicated Buddhism’s historical development with the historical axis. The abscissa axis is the outside forces which Buddhism develops. The Buddhism developed under the gameplaying of Taoism and intelligentsia. The former represent the power of the other religion , and the latter represent the power of the culture. The ordinate axis is the Buddhism own growth path which went though three stages: the“Transplant”and“Graft”stage, the stage of sinicization and the stable development stage. The classification of these three stages is according to the characteristic of the Buddhist development. The Interactions of these powers form the characteristic of Chinese Buddhist law. Compling with Chinese society and making the suitable change is as a read line to the development of the Buddhism law ,which forms the characteristic of sinicization.The chapterⅢintroduces the Buddhism temple administrative law emphatically. First introduced the monk rolls system’s basic content: Monks’ classification and origin and so on. Next, the Buddhism temple’s administration system is that the abbot is the pinnacle of a pagoda, the deacon is in the middle of the pagoda and the monks in the base. It includes many rules in monastery such as the public administration rules,the rules of forests,the rules of monastery-operated schools in which learn Chan and Buddhist scriptures,the rules of monastery-operated hostels which opened their doors free of charge to travelers,the rules of monastery-operated home for the aged monks and nuns, the rules of monastery-operated hospitals which opened to the sicked monks and nuns. The second part is the monastic rules to tornsure which are interlinked in manyaspects with the clerical certificate system. Besides this,the Buddhism law and the state law are interlinked in many other aspects, especially in three systems: the system of sthavira, vihara-svamin, and karma-dana、the system of monks’officials、three hierarchical system such as the“Five Mountain and Ten Monasteries”network.The chapterⅣintroduces the Buddhism civil law and the economical law which including the monastery land and house law, monks’personal property law,the monks’inherit law as well as the social phenomenon that monks have wives. The income derived from the goods donated by the faithful, together with the interests from the fair, leasing,usury,the Inexhaustible Treasuries,constituted the capital for the property of the monastery. Just like French scholar J.Gernet’s conclusion that the Buddhist sangha was responsible for the introduction of modern capitalistic practice in China, with its productive use of interest. The temple has the supervisory system, the accounting system, the tax revenue system and solicits donations the system. Using the cases to analysis interaction between the Buddhist law and the state law. The important part is to analysis how to evade the Vinaya prohibitions of primitive Buddhism in monastery land, monks’personal property and the development of commerce of monastery.The Theory of“Conditioning Cause”in Primitive Buddhism and On the Buddha - nature remaining in all wheate are similar with the Deep Ecology theories. The Deep Ecology movement is based on the main point that the human and non-human life on earth has intrinsic value. The value of non-human life forms is independent of the usefulness these may have for narrow human purposes. The concept of protecting animals in Buddhism is based on the fact that animals have the capacity for suffering or experiencing happiness. Besides this, people will sooner or later be reward for killing animals. The Buddhist law rule peoples’conducts with the causality and have the rules of protecting animals which are the similar with the animal welfare law.The chapterⅥintroduces the Buddhist criminal law. The compulsory standard mainly manifests in three aspects: First is“the nature”crime called the parajika sins—killing, stealing, having sex, or misrepresenting one’s meditative powers—result in expulsion from the order and also be punished by the state law which is analysised by the case of Qing Dynasty in the article. The second category of sins but parajika sins which can be pufified by the repentance. Using the repentance as the method of purifying sins is determined by the characteristic of the Buddhism. The third method of punishing sins is the punishment of the hell which is similar with the punishment of the natural law. The hell punishment has the binding force to the Buddhist, for it is the extension of the present world and also the supplement of not punishment in the present world. By the hell punishment, it may achieve equal and just.The chapterⅦis the article conclusion part and mainly discusses two questions which are Buddhist law’s sinicization and the influence to the current law. These two questions especially the fist one is the red line of this article. The sinicization of the Buddhist law in China manifests in the legislative power, the legislative technology, the legislative idea and the legislative form. The ancient Chinese Buddhism law follows the social rules and created with the time and circumstances, so it can be studied by the modern laws in the legislative technology, the legislative ideas sch as the democratic idea, the capital idea, the hard-working, thrifty and charitable idea, the idea of harmoniously with the nature; the repentance idea and so on. And all these ideas can be used by the modern laws which are similar with the ancient Chinese Buddhist law in legislative concept and the practice of law.更多还原