【作者】 于景莲；

【导师】 吕伟俊；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 中国近现代史， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 中华民国时期是与当代中国距离最近、联系最为紧密的时期。近代中国的城市是中国近代经济与社会发展的缩影,其发展历程集中反映了中国近代社会变迁的内涵和过程,对民国时期的城市进行深入的研究和剖析,具有重要的历史和现实意义。自20世纪80年代中期中国社会史研究复兴以来,普通群众成为国内外中国史研究学者瞩目的焦点,“从下向上看的历史”或曰“底层的历史”研究逐渐受到青睐。从社会史的视角对民国时期城市下层社会的物质生活状况为进行研究,自下而上的深刻透视民国城市社会,必然不同于自上而下的观察,两种路径之间的相互印证或许能使我们更为接近历史的真相。这对于认识仍然处在城市化、工业化转型进程的当今中国社会,特别是了解城市弱势群体的生存状态,分析其成因,改变其弱势地位,构建和谐社会,进而实现共同富裕的目标,也可提供一些有益的观照。尽管学界在对城市下层社会中一些特殊群体如人力车夫、乞丐、娼妓、城市贫民等的研究方面取得了可喜的成果,但总体看,近代城市下层社会群体仍然属于社会失语群体,至今还未见到近代中国整个城市下层社会进行系统研究的成果。本课题以山东城市为考察范围,聚焦于民国时期整个城市下层社会,从来源、结构、收支及其生活状况等方面对其内部各群体进行较为系统的研究,在一定程度上可以起到填补学术空白的作用。民国时期城市下层社会是近代中国社会转型的产物。近代山东的城市化是一种典型的集中型城市化,由工业化推动,二、三产业在城市地域的聚集,并由此导致城市经济结构的变化和城市集聚力、辐射力的增强,农村人口大量向城内集中、城市人口不断膨胀,城市规模不断扩大,进而引起城市社会职业结构重构,传统社会单一狭窄的就业结构被打破,城市出现了教育界、新闻界、金融界、政界、科技界、文化界等新的职业领域以及记者、律师、西式医生等新职业,职业分工越来越细,人数越来越多。工商业从业人数不断扩大、社会管理与服务类职业日趋多元化、无业失业率居高不下,造成城市社会加剧分化,形成以功能职业为基本标准的现代城市社会阶层结构的雏形,本文大致划分为九个层次,并将其中第七、八、九类列为山东城市社会的下层,归纳为四个群体：主要由现代产业工人、店员、手工业工人并包括学徒在内的工人店员群体；小手工业者、小商贩、手艺人等为主的自谋生计者群体；马车夫、人力车夫以及建筑、运输、装卸、清洁等行业季节工、临时工等组成的苦力群体以及乞丐、娼妓、戏子、算命、兵痞流氓等组成的游民群体。民国山东城市的工人店员群体是指那些在现代的或传统的工商企业中以出卖劳动力为生的被雇用劳动者。他们不占有任何生产资料,以工资收入为主要生活来源,是城市下层社会数量最大的群体。他们的主要来源为农村流入城市的农民,尤其是来自城市近郊以及周边省份的农民。产业工人的尽管工资收入相对稳定,但由于劳动力市场经常处于供大于求的状态,工人阶层的工资都被限制在最低水平上,除极少数行业和技术工人外,绝大多数工人家庭必须依靠其他成员的的劳动才能勉强糊口。当然,产业工人工资水平会因地域、行业、企业、工种的不同而存在差异。产业工人总体工资水平低下决定了产业工人衣食住条件之简陋。尽管工人家庭消费支出的大半用于解决解决饮食问题,饮食多是当地最廉价的粮食配以极为简单的副食,聊以果腹而已。无论是厂方为工人准备的住处还是工人自有住房,一般都比较拥挤,且环境卫生条件极差。数量占最大多数的手工业工人地域分布相对分散,不仅工作时间长,工资也相对低些。因此,手工业工人中间入不敷出的情况比较普遍。店员是商店的雇员。按照职务高低以及进店年限长短等,店员群体可分为多种层次,其劳动条件和待遇差别很大。高级店员参与商店的管理与经营,是资本家的得力助手,他们的工资要比普通店员高出许多,每逢年底,还能得达到较多的分红,其经济、社会地位较高,基本属于社会的中层。下层店员群体“一般不占有生产资料,生活来源的全部或者主要部分是依靠向店主出卖劳动力的工资”。店员群体尽管基本工资低廉,但工资形式相对多样化,与商店盈利联系最密切的花红是店员工资的重要形式,其总体工资水平,高于手工业工人,与产业工人大致相当,行业、资历等造成的工资差异也明显。店员的工作十分辛苦,每天站柜台要十几个小时,大的商店一般都有较为严格的店规、惩罚条例等,店员食宿均在店铺,极少数生意较好的商店伙食质量稍好一些。按照学徒学艺于商业、手工业或是现代工厂,学徒大致可以分为商业学徒、手工业学徒以及工厂学徒。尽管不同的工、商业组织中学徒的学习、工作、生活待遇会有所不同,总体而言,学徒工作繁杂辛苦,待遇恶劣,尤以旧式作坊、商号为最。当然,从社会流动即社会地位变动的角度来说,学徒是下层社会里最有可能向中、上层社会流动的群体。本论文将小商贩、小手工业者、手艺人等列入自谋生计者群体,他们是既不被别人雇佣也不雇佣别人而主要从事独立的个体劳动或家庭劳动、依靠简单的手艺或小本生意谋生的人。自谋生计者不像工人、职员或店员那样受雇于工厂或企业,而与自由职业人员如律师、经纪人、自由撰稿人等城市的中层相比,多半缺乏知识、资金、技艺简单,收入微薄,因而是城市社会的下层。从文献分析,自谋生计者群体都面临着“本小利微、惨淡经营”的窘况,其资金缺乏,多数仅有几元、几十元的本钱,也有不少是采取赊销形式,政府小本贷款的资助不可能从根本上改变他们的经营和生活状况,数量众多的自谋生计者以其多种多样的产品与服务满足了许多城市人日常生活之需,但他们中绝大多数收支紧绌,生活拮据。苦力群体是指城市中“无固定收入而纯恃出卖体力为生的社会底层劳动者群体”,这一群体的人员所从事的职业相当繁杂,既包括传统城市中已有的脚夫、轿夫、粪夫、清道夫、挑水夫,又包括近代才出现的码头工人、人力车夫等等。他们大都没有复杂的谋生手段,只能靠简单地出卖劳动力,在车站、码头、栈行、街道和建筑工地上从事着诸如搬运、运输、清洁等城市中最为繁重的工作,是城市最贫穷的血汗劳动者。在城市所有从事正当与非正当职业的群体中,苦力群体收入总体收入总体最低。由于其工作受季节、国内以及国际经济形势的影响比较明显,苦力群体的收入往往具有很大的不确定性。超强度的体力劳动是苦力群体不同于其它群体生活状况的一个重要方面,也注定了苦力职业生涯的短暂性,年老、伤病而沦为乞丐甚至于冻饿而死都是司空见惯的现象。而城市游民是指在城市居民中游离于基本社会结构以外的各个边缘群体,包括城市游民一般无固定的职业、无固定的生活来源,以正当或不正当的方式谋生,是城市社会中较不稳定的构成。”近代中国新旧社会结构的交错和畸形发展使得城市游民的来源呈现多样化特征,同时,大量的无法获得正当职业的游民长期聚集于都市之中,不得不通过各种非正当的手段谋生,使得近代城市游民的职业化倾向日趋明显。本文对游民群体的下层妓女进行了专门研究。所指妓女是指靠出卖自己的身体或才艺获取金钱作为自己或者他人生活费之全部或一部分的女子。近代山东的娼妓,主要集中在青岛、烟台、济南、威海卫、潍县、济宁、德州等大中城市。贫穷是“逼良为娼”导致娼业巨大的卖方市场的主要原因。据1941年对济南市所有妓女的调查,在列出的“被人拐卖”、“受诱惑”、“家景贫苦”、“父母不良行为”等四种妓女沦落原因中,所有三个等级的妓女无一例外地都是“因家贫”。妓女的收入主要来源于其服务所得并与服务方式有关,总体看,不同等级的妓女收入不尽相同,下层妓女收入较低,值得注意的是,尽管妓女生活困苦是不争的事实,但革命话语资料中描述的被摧残、蹂躏并非其生活常态。乞丐是民国时期城市游民的最主要的组成部分。按其是否以乞讨为职业分成两类：“职业乞丐”和“流动乞丐”。职业乞丐是乞丐群体的主体,其中许多人加入乞丐组织。“贫穷是制造乞丐的主要原因”,但天灾人祸、失业与疾病往往是乞丐沦落的直接原因。收入而言,除了丐头往往收人颇丰外,以及在庙会、节日等特殊的时候以及一些特殊的地点所获稍多,其收入一般不会太多。衣食住等日常生活也较为悲惨。民国时期山东城市社会下层是一个庞大繁杂的社会群体,大多数未受过教育、缺乏熟练技术,只能靠出卖劳动力和其他低等的谋生手段维持生存。他们处在城市社会的最底层,具有经济状况的贫困性、生活质量的低层次性以及承受力的脆弱性的特点。作为中国由传统社会向现代社会转型的一个特殊时期的人数最多的群体,其形成与物质生活状况困顿从一个侧面反映了该时期社会发展与转型的特点：在半殖民地半封建的社会条件下,中国工业化、城市化发展的整体低水平、不平衡,农村经济的凋敝,生产力总体水平低下,经济增长缓慢,与此相联系的劳动保护和社会保障方面的体制和措施不完善也是导致其生活困顿的主要原因。要大力发展生产力以解决民生问题、推动社会发展,解决好“三农”问题进而推动中国城市化、促进经济社会协调发展,加大政府财政投入,建立健全社会保障体系以切实解决民生问题、促进社会和谐发展。更多还原

【Abstract】 Chinese Republican period is the closest, most closely related period, to contemporary China. The city is epitome of China’s modern economic and social development, its development course reflects the connotation and process of the social changes of modern Chinese. Further research on Chinese cities has historical and realistic significance.From the revival of the social history in 1980s, common people become the focus of researches on Chinese history. History from the downside to the upside or lower-layer history was is in good graces Of history researchers. Taking social history as the angle of view, researching the life condition of the urban lower society is helpful to grasp the modern transformation of Chinese society in the Republic of China City accurately. Bottom-up profound perspective of city society is different from top-down observation, and two kinds of path between the mutual verification may bring us closer to the truth of history. It can also provide some useful perspective for us to understand the transition process of the contemporary Chinese society, especially the living conditions of the social vulnerable groups. It’s helpful for us to find the causes, change their disadvantaged position, build harmonious society, and realize common rich goal, too.The urban lower society is the product of social transformation in modern china. Along with the development of modern urban economy in, the urban social community structure experienced profound changes. Mainly according to the occupation, urban people in modern Shandong cities were divided into nine levels, and the seventh, eight or nine types of column for Shandong city social underclass, and divided into four groups:mainly by modern industrial workers, clerks, handicraft workers and including the apprentice, the group of workers; the small handicraftsmen, small traders, craftsmen such as self-sustaining groups; the coachman, human the driver and the construction, transportation, loading and unloading, cleaning industry seasonal workers, temporary workers and other components of the coolie groups as well as beggars, prostitutes as a representative of the homeless population.Workers staff group refers to those who make a living by selling their labor.They do not have any means of production and wage income is the main source of their livelihood. IT is also the largest urban lower social groups. They come from rural farmers, especially from the outskirts of the city and the neighboring provinces of farmers. TO the industrial workers, despite the wage income is relatively steady, the overall wage level is low. Because the labor market is often in a state of oversupply, working-class wages have been limited to the lowest level. Of course, the wage of the industrial workers differs from a geographical perspective, the industry, enterprise, etc.For worker family’s expenses, consumption is mainly used for solving the problem to solve the diet. With the exception of a few industries and technical workers, worker’s income could not support a family. Whether the factory workers shelter or a worker owned housing, are generally more crowded, and the environment is poor sanitary conditions; diet is the most inexpensive food with very simple non-staple food. Handicraft workers’ geographical distribution is relatively dispersed, not only the long working hours, wages are relatively low. Many handicraft-worker families live beyond their salary.According to the position and the working age, the assistant store employee group can be divided into many layers. Their labor conditions and treatment vary greatly. Senior clerk take part in the management of the store, their salary is much higher than ordinary store employee. In the end of every year, they achieve more money and belong to the middle society. The lower groups generally do not own the means of production, the source of life mainly relies on selling the labor.The basic pay of the assistant store employee group is higher than handicraft workers, and roughly equivalent to industrial workers. The work is very hard, for more than ten hours a day behind the counter, the big stores are generally more stringent Inn compasses, penalties, staff accommodation in the shop, very few better business store food quality is slightly better. The apprentice learning, working, living conditions, different industry, commercial organizations have different.The apprentice group is included in the workers staff group, too. Overall, the apprentice complex has no or little pay, bad treatment, especially in old workshops. Relying on the apprentice experience, some one may become one of the middle or up layer the society.Self-sustaining community mainly includes small traders, the small handicraftsmen. They were not being hired and don’t hire someone, either. Mainly engaged in individual labor and domestic labor, they rely on the simple craft or small business to make a living. Compared with the liberal occupation personnel, such as lawyers, agents, freelance writer and city middle, most of them lack of knowledge, capital, skills and belongs to the lower city society.From the analysis of the literature, self-sustaining groups are faced with "small capital and little gain, keep going by painstaking effort" predicament, the lack of funds, small loan funding has not fundamentally the their business and living conditions, a large number of shift living with the variety of products and services to meet the many city people daily life needs, but most of them and tight, living in straitened circumstances.Coolie group is who have no fixed income and purely rely on selling physical bottom worker groups. Most of them have no complex means of making a living, relying on simple manual labor. They are the poorest sweatshop workers.In all the city groups having proper and improper occupation, coolie groups’ income is the lowest. Because of the influence of season, the domestic and international economic situation more obvious influence, coolie groups’ income tends to have very big uncertainty. The intensity of physical labor is an important aspect coolie groups differs from other groups living conditions, but also career short, old age, injury and reduced to begging or froze to death as it is quite common for the phenomenon.The homeless in modern cities refers to the city residents drifted away from the basic social structure outside of the various fringe groups. City people in general no fixed occupation, no fixed source of livelihood, with proper or improper way of earning a living, city society is less stable." Modern Chinese new social structure staggered and abnormal development makes the city homeless has diversified sources characteristics, at the same time, many unable to get proper occupation homeless long-term accumulation in the city, have to through a variety of informal means of earning a living, make the modern city hobo occupation tendency is apparent with each passing day.The nomad groups of lower prostitutes were studied. The prostitute is by selling their bodies or talent to obtain money for themselves or others living expenses of all or part of a woman. Modern Shandong’s prostitutes, mainly in Qingdao, Yantai, Ji’nan, Weihai, Wei County, Jining, Dezhou, and other large and medium-sized cities. Poverty is the working cause which build huge seller’s market. According to a 1941 survey of all prostitutes in Ji’nan City, listed in the "trafficking","temptation","family trouble","bad behavior" and other, all three grades prostitutes are without exception because of poverty"". Hooker’s revenue comes mainly from its service income and service style, overall look, different grades of prostitutes income is not the same, the lower a lower income, notable is, although the lives of prostitutes afflicted is the fact that does not dispute, but their clothing is fed pedestrians differ from the other groups, the revolutionary discourse information is devastated not its normal life.The beggar is the main component of the homeless. According to whether they begged for occupation beggar is divided into two categories:occupation beggar and the flowing beggar. Occupation beggar is the subject, many of whom joined the beggar organization. Despite poverty is the main reason of producing beggar, the natural calamities and man-made misfortunes, unemployment and the disease were often the direct cause of beggars. In terms of income, while beg head often has income, food and clothing for common beggars is more miserable.Generally speaking, during the period of Republic of China the urban lower society is a huge complicated social group, most uneducated, lack of skilled, can only rely on manual labor and other lower means of subsistence. Mainly because of the low-standard production, they are poor, have a lowest level living and lack of capacity to resist economic risk, unemployment and decease, etc. labor protection and social security system and the measure is not perfect. In order to solve the problems of people’s livelihood, promoting the urbanization and the development of society, we must develop productivity energetically, solve the "three agriculture" problem effectively, in the mean time establish of a sound social security system.更多还原