【作者】 李虹；

【导师】 姜生；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 考古学及博物馆学， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 本文除导言和结语部分外共分四章,分别是死亡观念中的生命意识、解除术给身体以清洁、作为生居与死所中介的墓葬和死后生命的变形四个章节,从死亡与再生观念、解除之术、墓葬构造与功能、再生仪式等方面相互贯通,试图以宗教的视点对墓葬背后的信仰要素进行系统的解释和论述。先民不相信死亡是人生最后的结局,肉体的死亡并不意味着生命的终结,而仅仅是生命形式的转化,灵魂将在另一个世界重新开始新的生活。由远古时代对死亡的认知模糊到拒绝接受死亡,再到史前创造出一系列复杂的墓葬仪式,其象征意义建立在生者相信死后灵魂继续存在的基础上。至秦汉时代,人们在墓葬仪式中不自觉地发展出一系列行为,成为早期中国思想与信仰的重要组成部分,也是汉代墓葬信仰重要的思想基础。在道教产生后,它的再生理论认为生命可以逆宇宙变化而动,因此,死后的世界存在着相互通达的关系,人有可能经过某种特殊的修炼而重新回到他曾生活过的世界。道教之所以认为人可以以逆化顺,是因为他们认为身中壶天与鼎炉同构,壶是仙人的标志,炼丹术更认为身体犹如一壶,可变化为天地。随着炼丹术的出现,商周时作为通天礼器的鼎成为炼制丹药的器具。在炼制丹药的过程中,修道之士发现在鼎中可以炼制出让人长生不死的金丹,逆天地造化而不朽,这种神秘的变化使鼎产生了与宇宙模式一样的哲学意义,天地是放大的自我,个人是浓缩的宇宙。炼丹的变化发生在炉鼎间,宇宙的造化发生在天地间,于是丹鼎、天地、宇宙就自然地联系到了一起。因此,考古发现的大量文物中有鼎的图像,我们有理由相信这是信仰带来的变化。世界各种宗教相信只有圣洁的人才能在死后进入墓葬这个神圣的空间。汉代人认为,人世之外还有一个鬼神世界,鬼神能支配人的凶吉祸福。生者为求福避祸,应采取各种仪式使生者家宅安宁,死者冢墓稳定,这种仪式就是解除。早期解除仪式以方相氏打鬼、巫觋解土为主,随着道教影响日益扩大,这种方法有所改变,即将代人假形物、五石神药、镇墓券、解(除)注瓶等放入墓中,希望以文字的力量达到驱鬼的目的,考古发现的解除(注)瓶、解注文均表明解除活动与巫觋有关。汉代人相信死后有来生,但是又担心死后无法重生,因此葬仪文书就成为他们进入死后重生世界的通行文书。将葬仪文书埋入地下可以有效地驱鬼压邪,还可以与掌管土地的地下神及祖先建立沟通渠道,取得合法的地下土地使用权。经过解除术的清洁作用,无论是生者还是死者都解除了潜在的威协。汉代人认为墓葬是象征性的宇宙中心,死者—旦入墓就会被纳入天界并得到重生,因此在建造时不仅要在形制上模仿生前居室,将随葬明器放入墓室,而且还要在葬室装饰上体现对宇宙的认知。这种观念的变化以及汉代墓葬形制的变化成为墓葬信仰存在的物质基础。与其他宗教人神分离相比,道教神仙世界同时具有出世性和世间性。出世信仰认为仙人生活在天上或海外仙境,不出世信仰相信长生乃至不死。事实上,道教的仙境仍然具有世间性的特点,修道之士栖身的山中石室、洞室名义上是他们的炼养之地,实则为他们在此世的仙境。门的基本功能是分隔两个不同的空间。在中国人的墓葬观念中,墓门是阴与阳、生与死的交叉点,死者被葬入墓室就是进入另一个世界,因此从形式上来说,墓门天生就具有分隔生死两界的象征性功能。在从生到死、从阳居到阴宅的转化过程中,墓门实际上同时也是象征性的分界点。在经过墓门这一意象后,死者进入一个中间地带。在这里,他既不是生者也不是死者,他成为二者中间的一个过渡物,等待着重生。汉末两晋时,关于长生成仙说产生了一个细微却重要的变化：既然生前不得不死,那么人在死后依然可以修炼并成仙。这样,道教的尸解说、炼形说和易迁说应运而生。在汉代墓葬,即死一墓一仙三重结构中,墓是最重要的过程,是连接凡、仙的中转站,是死后炼形所在的空间。在这个功能性空间里,死去的人在墓中开始了重生的努力。墓葬信仰及仪式中的各个关键点都在为死者的复生准备条件,车马升仙、通过天门等固然是死后重生的方法,但在考察两汉魏晋墓葬后,我们可以发现那时的人还有借骨骼以化生、借水的意蕴以化生以及借太阴以炼形转生等几个途径。墓葬信仰的目的是要在死亡和成仙之间建立起完整的内在联系。墓葬是生死之间的中间状态,入葬标志着死者身份和意义的变换,经由此关键节点,死者才能进一步转形并重生,死后的过程才有可能向纵深发展。更多还原

【Abstract】 Death is the end of life. However, the complicated funeral ritual which is a refusal of death is an actual part of the process for the soul to be immortal, the symbolization of which is established on the idea that the soul of human can exist forever. Human being believes that physical death does not mean the end of life, but a form of transformation, the soul will enter into another world to begin a new life. The soul concept is an important component of early Chinese thoughts and beliefs, and also the important faith of tomb ideological basis in Han dynasty.Tombs are symbolization of the cosmic center. Once the dead is put into grave, he/she will be accepted into celestial world and get reborn. The premise of tomb is to provide a similar environment as living before for the dead. As a result, both the structure of the tomb and the arrangement of the funerary wares should be in shape and position similar to before when living. In addition, the decoration of tomb should reflect the knowledge of the universe. From Han dynasty, people at that time considered Tomb as a mini world which is a prime feature differentiated from before and it is a faith basis of Han dynasty.The Chinese ancestors believe that there was a ghost world beyond current world, and the ghosts can dominate current people’s lives. So the living people should hold various kinds of ritual to ask ghost spirits to bring good luck and ward off calamities, to make living safe and grave stable. This ritual is called solution. " Fang Xiang hit ghost", "Wizard and Witch Releasing Earth" are the earlier prime rites of solution. With the wide influence by Daoism religion, the way of solution changed. For example, using instruments to represent human, this symbols can be found in tombs, such as "magic medicine of five stones", tomb stabilized stamps, and solution bottles can be found inside tombs, in the hope to drive ghosts away by written words. Archaeological discovery of solution bottles, the text shows that the solution activities are related to the wizard and witch. Funeral document applied in Han dynasty is one of the features of Han’s faith. Han people believed that there was a return life after death, but worried the possibility of reborn after death, thus the funeral document was considered as their pass to the new world. In addition, when the document was buried underground with the dead, it can not only drive away evil ghosts, but also built a channel for the dead to communicate with their ancestors and underneath spirits who were in charge of under earth. This document can gave the tomb holder legal right to own the tomb area and it is also an attempt for the living people to build a good relationship with the underground world. Thereafter, both the living and the dead were released from the potential menace.It is believed that Hu Tian in human’s body has the same structure and function as Dan Ding for alchemy. Hu is the symbol of immortals, which can change into heaven and earth. Ding is a kind of instrument to be used for people in Shang dynasty to pay respect to heaven, when in alchemy it was used as a tool for refining medicine that can make people long life. Thus the magic function of Ding was considered as a small model of the universe and Ding has the same philosophical significance as the universe, in which Heaven and Earth is an enlarged human while human individual is a concentrated universe. The magic power of alchemy took place around Ding (the furnace) while the change of universe took place within universe. As a result, Dan Ding, Heaven and Earth and the universe are naturally connected together.Long life and being immortal is human’s wishful dream, which requires human to jump over the big gap over the death. Though being immortal is not easy, people would like to consider how to escape the fate after death. Thus, since the end of Han dynasty and Wei-Jin Dynasties, a subtle but important change appeared in immortality and long life faith. Since human couldn’t escape from death, they can do exercises in tombs to be immortal after death. Thus Daoism ideas such as Shijie, lianxing and Qianyi appeared along with this change. In this change, tomb is the most important place in which the dead people will experience from dead to be immortal process. It is a transition station from death to rebirth and a place to exercise. The key points of funeral rite prepare people for rebirth. Besides the ways of going on a journey with horses and carriages, or leading the host’s spirit into the Heaven gate, there are a lot of other ways to become immortal, such as, rebirth by means of bones transformation, water transformation, TaiyinlianxingThe aim of burial belief is to establish an intact and inner relationship between death and immortals. Tomb is the medium place between life and death, where people think it is a transformation of identity and significance of life. Through this place, the dead could be transformed and get rebirth, and thus the process of death could be developed fully and completely.更多还原