【作者】 李维才；

【导师】 谭世宝；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 专门史， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 粮食作为国计民生的最基本物资,在唐帝国的盛衰荣辱中扮演了重要角色。粮食问题处理得好,即国泰民安、军力强盛、四夷宾服；粮食问题处理不好,就会经济衰退、军心不稳、民心思变。唐代粮食问题,包括粮政思想、粮食生产、流通、分配、消费及粮食政策的具体运用等。粮政思想作为观念上层建筑,对粮食政策制定有决定性影响；而粮食政策又直接影响着粮食生产、流通等状况。正由于粮食在国计民生中的特殊地位,使得研究粮食问题可以作为了解唐代历史的很好切入点。文章共分五个部分：第一部分,唐代粮政思想。唐代人,特别是居于高位的皇帝和大臣,既继承了前人重视粮食的基本观点,又有所发展。作为王朝政策的制定者和执行者,其粮政思想能较好地转化为实际生产力。因此,了解其粮政思想对我们认识唐代经济制度和政策有重要意义。他们都认识到粮食对于国计民生的重要性,认识到：粮食乃民生之本源,粮价乃百价之根基,粮政乃治国之要举。粮食不仅是人类赖以生存的最基本生活资料,还是国家重要的战略物资、宏观调控物资和应急储备物资,粮食安全关系着国家安全。因此,国家政权必须采取种种措施来恢复、发展粮食生产、保征人民和国家粮食储备,并对粮食价格和粮食流通予以控制。很明显,唐代前期,多数皇帝与大臣在思想上重视生产、爱惜民生,故而在政策上也体现为均田制、租庸调制、仓廪制度等——强调的是如何发展与保障；而到唐后期,因为均田制瓦解,政府在粮食生产上作用减弱,很多皇帝、大臣更多致力于思考如何横征暴敛、鱼肉百姓,故而在政策上也体现为两税法、贡赋三分、义仓赋税化等——强调的是如何聚敛与分配。这种经济思想上的差异,影响到国家政策,进而影响到国运盛衰,不能不引起重视。第二部分,唐代粮食生产。在经济运行中,国家政府并不总是站在百姓对立面。当它能够正确行使权力,既能为粮食生产提供制度保障,又能通过组织生产、兴修水利、改良技术、指导田间管理等方式推动生产发展。在专制权力高度集中的古代社会,一个国家、一个地方粮食生产能否发展、百姓生活是否安乐,实在与皇帝、地方长官的个人才能、品质及施政方略有密切而直接的关系。正因如此,中国百姓有很深的“明君”和“清官”情结。总体而言,唐代前期粮食生产得到很好发展：均田制较好解决了劳动力与土地结合问题,租庸调制为百姓生产提供了进一步制度保障；耕地面积扩大、人口数量增加,各地粮食单产、总产量提高,为唐帝国走向兴盛奠定了坚实的物质基础。唐代后期,南北方粮食生产均遭不同程度破坏,但因为战乱、割据的中心在北方,南方经济得到较快发展。再加上北方割据势力强大,政府对江淮钱粮的依赖大为加强。但从人口迁移角度看,粮食生产重心转移并不明显,只能说南方也成为了重要粮食产区。在南北粮食生产发展中,许多荒地、山林、湖泊池陂得到迅速开发,在缓解了人地矛盾的同时,对局部生态环境也有所破坏,产生了些不良后果。第三部分,唐代粮食流通。唐代粮食流通主要包括三部分内容：粮食储藏、粮食运输、粮食贸易。其一,唐王朝为满足国家机器粮食需求,建立了一整套完备的仓廪系统。其仓建造科学、布局合理、管理严格。各仓职能相对独立又相互交叉,是联系生产与消费的纽带,对调节市场粮食供求、保障国家粮食需要有重要意义。其二,在粮食运输方面,一方面是唐律令对各水、陆运输有细致而明确的规定；另方面是出现了一批批致力于改良运道、保障供给的官吏,其中既有改良得法、卓有成效的裴耀卿、刘晏等,也有不顾实际、劳民伤财的杨务廉等。从粮食运输的程序看,是先集中再转运；从粮食运输的人员看,既有百姓自运也有专业雇佣人员；从粮食运输时间看,是严格期限与灵活规定相结合；从粮食运输的方式看,是既有陆路也有水路,漕运具有举足轻重的地位；从粮食运输的距离看,是既有短途运输也有长距离运输。粮食运输顺利与否,与唐王朝盛衰密切相关。其三,在粮食贸易方面,官方粮食贸易占有重要位置,民间粮食贸易也很活跃。唐政府对粮食贸易虽然采取较为自由的管理政策,但最大宗的粮食贸易都掌握在政府手里。政府粮食贸易的方式,也经历了主要由官府直接经营到更多假手中间商的演变。唐代民间粮食贸易发展迅速,不但参与人数众多,经营理念也很丰富,他们倡导诚信交易,并懂得使用广告招揽。政府粮食贸易行为在保障军粮供应、平抑粮价、维护市场秩序方面,发挥了重要作用；民间粮食贸易行为在活跃市场、满足百姓生活所需方面,也功不可没。然而,由于农民市场经济行为具有不完全之特点,结果就造成了中国古代社会,虽然有时看上去商品经济非常繁荣,但更像是一种假象；虽然有时候参与市场活动的人数众多,但又缺乏商品经济全面发展所依赖的广大社会基础。也因此,古代商品经济难以发展成一种独立的、强大的经济形式,也就不能产生出足以改变社会发展方向的新生政治、经济力量,中国古代社会也只能在一次次看似要“蜕变”的时候,却又依然宿命般地“停滞”不前了。第四部分,唐代粮食分配与消费。唐代官府手里的粮食分配,主要指供应皇室、百官俸禄、厨食、赈灾用粮及供应军队用粮等。消费方面,则先简要介绍唐代粮食加工的有关情况。唐代面粉加工业发展迅速,官方和私人碾硙遍及全国各地。另外,面食加工、酿酒等方面,唐代也有很大发展。在粮食消费方面,皇室、官吏和军队的消费无疑占有重要地位。为了更直观地比较官民粮食消费水平、了解唐代农民生活状况,对唐代官民收入及其生活水平进行了粗略计算。结论是,唐代鼎盛时期,百姓生活状态基本良好；安史之乱后,则总体限于贫困。农民作为一个整体受到国家高度重视,但作为个体,其生活却非常艰难。第五部分,唐代粮食政策的具体运用及其得失。唐政府充分利用粮食手段来治国安邦,主要表现有四：利用粮食敛散实现宏观调控；通过赈济灾荒维持社会稳定；作为税收补充支持国家财政；作为战略物资保障国家安全。唐代粮食政策与管理体现出这样的特点：一、在政策上,将粮食安全与国家安全放在一起考虑。二、在管理上,对粮食控制非常严格。三、在运用上,将粮食运作当成治理国家的一种手段。但唐代粮食政策本身及其执行中也存在种种问题,如政府为保障粮食生产限制农民人身自由、采取重农抑商政策,严重抑制了商品经济发展,从而更不得不依赖农民,从政策上构成了农民贫困的根源；严格控制粮价导致农民根本无法从市场行为中受益,只能承受“谷贱伤农”、谷贵亦伤农的悲惨宿命；粮食赈济则有时“虚受吾君蠲免恩”,有时还遭遇地方官变本加厉的压榨。但无论如何,研究唐代粮食问题,可以使我们从中得到借鉴：既要如唐王朝一样对粮食问题引起足够的、持久的重视,又要注意借鉴其经验教训,健全法规制度,还应该与时俱进向发达国家学习,加大对粮食生产的补贴力度,维护国家粮食安全。更多还原

【Abstract】 As basis of the national economy and the people’s livelihood, grain played an important role in the Tang Dynasty’s prosperity and decline. If the grain problem solved well, the country would flourish and people live in peace, and it’s military would be strong enough to rule the minorities. Otherwise, the country’s economy would decline and the army’s morale would be shaken and as well as the common people. The Tang Dynasty’s grain problem includes the grain economic thoughts, the grain production, the grain circulation, the grain consumption and the utilization of the grain policy, etc. As the ideological superstructure, grain economic thoughts had decisive influence to the grain policy which decide the condition of grain production and circulation. Because of the special status that the grain had, studing the grain problem would be a breakthrough in understanding the history of the Tang Dynasty. This dissertation falls into five chapters.The first chapter makes an analysis about thoughts of grain policy in the Tang Dynasty. The people in Tang Dynasty, especially the emperor and the officials not only inherited the views of the importance of grain but also developed them. As the policy makers and executors, their grain economic thoughts could transform into actual productive forces well. Thus, it is important for us to study the Tang Dynasty’s grain economic thoughts to understand its economic system and policy. They all realized the importance of grain. They knew that grain was the source of the people’s life, the price of grain was the basic price of all other goods and the grain policy was the important policy of the State. The grain was not only the most basic substantial goods of the people but also the important strategic resources and the macroeconomical adjustment resources as well as the reserve resources for emergency. And because the food security were closely related to the State security, the government must take all sorts of measures to resume and develop grain production, to guarrantee the people’s and the country’s grain reserves, and thus control the price and circulation of the grain. Obviously, in the earlier period of the Tang Dynasty, the emperor and officials devoted themselves to thinking highly of the grain production and cherishing the financial resources of the people. And these became some policies such as the Equally-divided Land System, the Tax-Labor-Substitution System and the Granary System, which emphasized the development and safeguard. In the later peroid of the Tang Dynasty, the emperor and officials became to pay their attention to heavy taxes and exploiting the people. And these became some policies such as the Tow-tax System, the Three-Devide Tribute and Taxes System and the Public Relief-grain became taxes, which emphasized convergence and assignment. The difference of their thoughts affected their economic policy and then influenced the national fortune. We should not take it for granted.The second chapter illustrates the conditions of the Tang Dynasty’s grain production. During the process of grain production, the government did not always stand on commen people’s opposite side. It would not only provide safeguard system for grain production but also promote its development through organizing production, building irrigation works, innovating technology and guiding field management when the government use its power correctly. Whether a country or a place could develop normally and its people could live happily was greatly related to the emperor or its provincial governor and their policy because of the authority in the ancient China. That was why the people lived in ancient China had strong desire of "wise king" and "upright officials". By large, the grain production developed well during the earlier period of the Tang dynasty. It is to say that the Equally-divided Land System made combination of the workforce and land. And the Tax-Labor-Substitution System provided safeguard system for grain production. These brought more land under cultivation, and the population grew fast. The great increase of grain output laid solid social basis for the Tang dynasty’s prosperity. In the later peroid of the Tang dynasty, the grain production were badly destroyed. As the chaos and regional separatism mainly occered in the north China, the economy that in the south area developed fast. In addition, the regional separatism in the north area controlled the grain which made the central government had to rely on the south area seriously. But we could find that the grain production center does not moved obviously if we analysize the trend of population migration carefully. We may draw a conclusion that the south area had also become a major grain producing area as well as the north area had been. During the process of grain production, lots of waste land and forest and lakes were developed into farm land which to some extent destroyed the environment and brought negative effects.Chanpter three is about the grain circulation in Tang Dynasty. This chapter includes three sections. They are grain reserve, grain transportation, and grain transaction. First, there was a perfect granary system to provide grain for the State. The granary in Tang Dynasty was built scientifically, distributed reasonably and managed strictly. The granary was a link between grain production and its consumption. The functions of every granary were differents and overlapped. The granary played a significant role in adjusting the market supply and demand for grain. So was it to the State. Second, there was a wholesome transportation system in the Tang Dynasty. On one hand, there were lots of clear terms about the transportation by land and water. On the other hand, there were many officials who devoted themselves to reform the transport route and ensure the grain supply. Some of them succeeded such as Pei Yaoqing and LiuYan, and some of them failed such as Yang Wulian who ignored the reality and hurt the people. The transportation procedure was, firstly brought the grain together, and then transport them to anywhere needed. The transportation staff included not only the common people but also some professionals hired by the government. The deadline of the transportation was formulated strictly and flexibly. The way of transportation included water route and land route, and the Canal played a significant role in the Tang Dynasty’s grain transportation. The grain was not only transported between neighbourhood but also throughout the country in the Tang Dynasty. In a word, The grain transportation meant much to the Tang empire. Third, the grain transaction in the Tang Dynasty included the governmental transaction and nongovernmental transaction. The governmental transaction played a fairly important role in the Tang Dynasty. The nongovernmental grain transaction was active too. Almost all huge grain transaction were grasped by the government though its grain policy was free. The management of the governmental grain transaction was controled derectly by the government first, and then parts by the middle men. The nongovernmental grain transaction developed promptly. For example, the trader included rich barons and retailers, and also included traders and shop keepers. The enterprise notion included not only play tricks on customer but also fare play. And some businessmen in the Tang Dynasty even used advertisement for their merchandise. The governmental grain transaction meant much to the army provisions, and meant much to control the grain price and contain the market order in the Tang Dynasty. The nongovernmental grain transaction was also important to the people’s life. Otherwise, the common people’s market behavior was not as same as the merchants’. As a result, the market-oriented economy in ancient China looked like prosperous but an illusion, looked like owned enough person but lacked of support from people. Thus, the market-oriented economy in ancient China could not grow up to be an independent and strong economy form. And because of this, new power who could change the society could not be born. So, the ancient society seemed to fall into a circulation that when it was about to change but did not. This made the social stagnation like a destiny of the ancient China.Chapter four illustrates the grain distribution and consumption in the Tang Dynasty. The grain controlled by government mainly supplied to the imperial household food, rice as salary for officials, working food and relief requirement and the army requirement. These views were discussed deeply by the predecessors. About consumption, the grain processing would be introduced first. The flour milling industry developed quickly in the Tang Dynasty. For example, there were many watermills belonged to the government and private persons all over the country. In addition, food-processing and liquor-making developed well too. Someone such as the imperial household, the officials and the army played an important role in grain consumption. Grain incomes was used to calculate the officials’and common people’s grain consumption to illustrate their living standards. The conclusion is that the common people’s living conditions was well when they lived in the prosperous period of Tang Dynasty. However, almost all common people fell in poverty after the Anshi war. The conclusion is, as a whole, the peasent was highly valued by the government, but as individual, their life were very tough.The fifth chapter illustrated the utilization of the grain policy and its success and failure. The government took grain as an important tool for governing the country. There were four effects left. First, it was a way to realize macro-economic regulation through gathering or launching grain. Second, it was a way to realize the social stability through famine relief. Third, it was a way to increase the State financial income. Fourth, it was the strategic materials to safeguard the State security. There were three characteristics of the Tang Dynasty’s grain policy. First, in the policy, the food security was considered as same important as the State security. Second, in the management, the grain was controlled strictly. Third, in the utilization, the grain operation was regarded as one method for governing the country. However, the grain policy was not perfect and more problems occurred in its practising. For instance, the government always adopted a policy as "emphasizing agriculture but restraining commerce". Although its purpose was to develop the agriculture, it also restricted the peasents’freedom of movement. And then, the market-oriented economy in ancient China was restrained seriously. As a result, the government had to rely on the peasents’supply more severely. This policy is the very reason that caused the peasents’poverty. As the grain price was controlled stictly, the peasents could not earn much profits from market but always suffered loss. Just as someone said, when the grain price rise the peasents would be hurt, when the grain price drop the peasents would be hurt too. As for relief, sometimes the peasents could not gain any tangible benefits, and sometimes even suffered the officials’ extortion. In any case, through studing the problems about grain in the Tang Dynasty we could learn that we should pay enough attention to the grain problems like the Tang Dynasty had done. And we should accept its experiences and lessons too. On one hand, we should perfect the legal system like the Tang Dynasty. On the other hand, we should learn what the developed country have done. We should intensify the subsidies for grain production to safeguard the food security of our country.更多还原