【作者】 刘鑫渝；

【导师】 田毅鹏；

【作者基本信息】 吉林大学 ， 社会学， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 本研究以建国后土地制度变迁为着眼点,探讨哈萨克牧区社会在土地变革中的土地实践。由于自然条件、生产资料的差异与技术手段选择的不同,中国游牧地区的土地实践与内地农村存在着较大差异。民主改革以前,牧区牧地公有,即为部落、氏族共有,但实质上草场所有权归部落贵族、头人所有。而牧业民主改革实行的是土地公有公营,牲畜私有私营。新疆草原的民族公有制延续了大约6年(1952～1958)。这6年中,牧民对自己的草牧场可以全面地行使占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。牧业互助组和初级合作化阶段未触动草原集体所有和牲畜家庭经营的根基,符合哈萨克族游牧社会互帮互助抵御自然灾害和外族侵略的传统,受到了牧民的普遍欢迎,起到了稳定社会秩序推动社会发展的作用。尽管牧业初级合作社是对互助组的替代,但在初期牧场集体所有,牲畜私有,牧民拥有比较充分的退出权,且退出的自由度与合作社的经营风险呈正相关。牧民不仅可以实施对合作社的监督,使管理者改善制度绩效,还可以参与对合作社的监督,对于社员来说,拥有较完整的退出权意味着有完整的剩余控制权和剩余索取权。初级社既成功地分割了部分私有产权,又通过给予社员较完善的退出权,有效化解初级社解散的风险。人民公社化实行草原全民所有,牲畜集体所有。变牲畜家庭个体经营为集体统一经营,加上国家控制商业和户籍制度对劳动力流动的限制,牧民没有退社自由,降低了劳动的机会成本以维持牲畜及畜产品生产的低成本,也迫使牧民放弃了可能的边际生产和可能取得的边际收益。牲畜及畜产品国家征购及诸如关闭集市、限制区域交换等一系列规则,剥夺了牧民对其产品——牧业剩余价值的支配权。草原集体所有和集体经营,牲畜集体所有,牧民不再是独立的经济单元。人民公社时期,国家权力全面侵入农村。对单个牧民来讲,草原和牲畜都是一种公共物品,他不拥有相对于其它成员的对土地和牲畜的排他性使用、转让、收益和处置权,牧民土地和牲畜产权都出现“残缺”。人民公社、大跃进、公共食堂、牧业学大寨、牧民定居是与土地制度相伴生的国家自上而下理性设计的社会改造工程。这些体现了控制与改善逻辑的社会工程通过重新设计力图使人民的生活变得更加简单与清晰,以便更加有效地对公共和私人领域进行治理。这些项目始于官僚知识分子、革命精英作为“立法者”的远大抱负和无限雄心,他们不仅主张“人为自然立法”,而且主张通过行动来对自然界或整个社会秩序进行彻底和理性的改造;而在这种雄心的背后,则是对持续的线性进步、科学知识发展、生产的扩大、社会秩序的理性设计以及对自然甚至人类本性的控制能力的超强自信。“致命的自负”注定要走向失败。即使失败了的项目也并非没有任何积极的成效。我们是各种现代化项目的受益者,改善的目的本意是良善的,关键在于如何改善。是把自然和社会改造为容易被国家识别和控制的清晰而又简单的对象,还是站在人民的角度关心和改善人民的福祉。国家将建基于农耕社会的土地制度实施于牧区是国家强力推行下的简单化实践。在这一实践中牧民成了没有性别、传统和价值、特定个性的异常抽象的可以互换的个体。这种简单化设计因为忽视了牧民的生存传统、地方性知识的重要性而遭遇失败。草原生态恶化与牧民生计两难困境成为新项目实施的挚肘。为了避免仍然存活着的“国家乌托邦”,需要在牧区现代化现实路径选择的实施中,关注地方性知识和传统文化、注重项目谨慎推进、规划要有弹性,利用互助传统建设“新公共性”,建立完善的牧民参与机制。更多还原

【Abstract】 Kazak is an ethnic group of Eurasian steppe nomadic with a long history. In the middle of 1750s, Heizai tribe in Yuzi and Aleban and Suwan tribe in Dayuzi entered administrative area of Yili Prefecture in China. In the late nineteenth century, Heizai tribe entered into Xinyuan field and became the subject of nomadice groups. Kazakh society is a traditional one with the mixture of blood tie, geographical circumstance and religion.Kazakh society has also gone through three land reforms and other related important social transformation project. in order to study whether the society reform project designed reasonablely on the basis of agricultural society is successful or not, whether the“silience”groups of boundary society enjoy the social progress or not To talk about whether the practices of the major social transformation project based on rational design of agricultural society are successes or not; whether those silent marginal social groups share the fruits of social progress or not is the theory of the social aspirations of scholars and social mission. In order to show an image of nomadic changing society, academic provide a special paradigm of rural society development to China’s sociology and nomadic society the image of China’s rural sociology to provide additional interpretation to the study of rural and nomadic society, and to promote progress and development of multi-ethnic groups in Xinjiang. This study takes Kazakh as an example, though studying Xinyuan, from the point of changes of land institution, we can see the land practice that Kazakh society experienced and the present situation of society reform project companied with changes of land institution; what various land practices those Kazakh have in land reform; what changes have taken place to the family and kinship institution, social grass-roots organizations, migration and settlement, grassland property rights and grassland environment.The state carried out democratic reforms in other farming and pastoral areas. The reform aims at changing the grassland into national public grassland. Herdsmen who own grassland were endowed the rights to occupy, use and benefits. During that time, pastoralists with high enthusiasm developed, animal husbandry. The co-operative husbandry is based on their traditional assistant, and is also a collaborative approach on the use of funds, property and livestock, which causes relatively clear benefit of livestock and helps the livestock industry to maintain a good institution performance. During People’s Commune period, grassland and livestock belong to the whole people, which change the status of private livestock since ancient times. In terms of individual pastoralists, pasture and livestock have become a public good and allow others to use, transfer and disposal proceeds. This cause pastoral land and livestock ownership is "incomplete."Household contract responsibility institution is a totally and spontanious reform. The government will apply the land design to the pastoral area and carry out the grassland contracting. which brings benefits to pastoral environment. on one hand, distributing grassland to herdsman makes it easy to manage their own grassland. and if every family do the thing well, the grassland environment will be guranteened. on the other hand, the markets mechanism combine ecological benefit with econimic benefit. so the herdsman will pay more attention to the protection and construction of their grassland in order to gain more benefits. grassland contracting meet the“rules of grassland”, but the problem of unclear grassland property rights always exits.the grassland ownership becomes more and more obvious with rising population, decreasing grassland and captilazing nature.with the transform of land institution, different changes happen to grassland ownership. The intellectual property reform tells us the importance lies on clear grassland ownership instead of deepening the Household contract institution.stable namoadic people is a useful item to improve the living of herdsman. Stable namoadic settlement is just a individual case, reasonable design grassland contracting put namoadic society to an end. stable settlement is the most distingtive change.and it is a reasonable design to improve the living situation for herdsman. herdsman stable settlement altered their traditiona lifestyle; improved the condition of eduacation and medical hygine and changed the single megthod of operating and it makes Kazac share the fruits of social progress with other nations equally. However, herdsman stable settlement worsen the grassland environment. Grassland contracting put the their living and environmental protection in a dilema. So we should draw a balance between herdsman living and environmental protection. grassland contracting promotes the changes and reconstruction in pastroal area.In livestock production, grassland use rights are the core problem. Change of property rights through the process of grassland back to the situation we have had a clear understanding towards grassland condition in Xinjiang. The current property rights on grassland give us many inspirations. The government came up with a serious of relevant reforms, based on the advantages and disadvantages of modern property rights and the implementation of grassland property unintended consequences occur, that is to establish the compensation institution of ecological grassland, to carry out "double right one institution ", to establish related lanes and regulars institution, to build exclusive rights, to improve the transfer institution of property rights and to establish the stock and share on the property rights of grassland.Before the grassland contracting, the settlement of Kazakh nomads is just a special case. The grassland contracting led to the end of the nomadic community, so the settlement phenomenon has become the most significant social change. The best way to achieve modernization is pastoral herders’settlement, which changes their lifestyle and production; improves the medical, health, education and cultural conditions and makes the way of operation become diversified. People begin to share the fruits of social progress. However, the herdsmen settlement is one of the reasons to leading to the degradation of grassland ecosystems.As the deteriorating ecological environment, the state began a large-scale ecological protection action. State Environmental Protection Policy is based on theoretical assumptions overgrazing , therefore, countries have developed a pastoral grazing time and reduced livestock policies which led to the industrial structure is relatively simple to the difficulties of pastoral livelihoods in pastoral areas. Prairie Village, ecological protection and construction of new animal husbandry to improve herders on the dilemma of income required to appear. In both the grassland and pastoral livelihoods grassland on the measures the author proposes family contract institutions is not the only unit of pasture use and are not limited to property rights reform.Household contract responsibility institution promotes social differentiation of pastoral community, as well as in the production and life, belief institutions, social organizations and economic income. During the differentiation of social structure, social institution or structure of functional complementation and that there is integration. Pastoral communities in the social organization, social relations, religious beliefs, ethnic traditions, family and marriage, resources, interests, and cultural aspects of integration have emerged.In the current structure of Chinese society under the conditions of rapid differentiation, in order to establish a wide range of social integration institution and ensure social stability, coordination, rational structure, the interests of the same deposit, the value of sharing resources with each other, we need to use the institution, legal, organizational and public opinion and other means to create a fair, reasonable and open environment for social differentiation, coordination among the various interests of social strata. Promoting economic development in pastoral areas of the market and promoting the development of various types of intermediary organizations make the pastoral and administrative integration of ascription-based mechanism to the mechanical integration of the contractual-based integration mechanisms of organic change. In the social integration of specific policy options, we should establish participatory mechanisms for herders; establish a fair, reasonable and open mechanism for social mobility and social class structure; expand the pastoral inhabitants of the city living and development space; concern the arising vulnerable groups in pastoral areas during the process of social differentiation; treat education development as a strategy to promote social integration in pastoral areas. After contracting grassland and pastoral settlement, the pastoral social structure experienced historical changes on economic life, production and lifestyle, social construction and other aspects.Prairie household contract laid the foundation for the modern pastoral area. As a new paradigm of rural development, village construction is a new modern concrete practice of pastoral areas. According to the present construction of new village and existent problems, the government draws up practical measures on the basis of ecological protection and in line with the actual pastoral areas. The most important and fundamental point of modern pastoral area is the modernization of herdsmen according to their cultural level, the reality of knowledge and skills. Through skills training and culture development, we should recognize and understand pastoral identity, status and role, and respect knowledge and intellectuals to foster new herders with knowledge, techniques and business operations.The construction of social security in pastoral areas of Kazakhstan was officially launched. We need to focus on the construction of public social security institution and ecological protection of the interests of pastoralists. In the ecological environment construction, we need to compensate for the loss of economic benefits and expand the channels to increase revenue to protect the pastoral herders’rights.New village construction depends on the healthy development of grassland ecological environment, which is of great significance of the new village. The importance lies on the clear prairie property rights. Clear prairie property rights help to optimize the internal and external environment, to arouse herdsmen of the main self-protection of the grassland ecological environment, to protect the collective economy interests of pastoralists, to participate politics and government decision-making error correction. Based on the above analysis, the author poses measures of grassland ecological protection:developing specialized cooperative economic organizations in pastoral areas; improving the grassland livestock production levels; establishing the institution of single-family ranch and protecting the grassland ecological environment through the enterprise.Based on living in Kazakh society and laying strong emphasis, the author, as a non-native sociology researcher, discusses the changes of Kazakh society objectively and fairly which produce realistic and historial meanings on establishing the institution of single-family ranch and grassland ecological environment , cultivating new herdsman and promoting mutrual understanding between the government and its people.更多还原