【作者】 苗冬；

【导师】 李治安；

【作者基本信息】 南开大学 ， 中国古代史， 2010， 博士

【摘要】 与其它朝代相比,元代使臣具有自己鲜明的特色。由于疆域空前辽阔,帝国内外的信息交流沟通的需要,以及蒙古旧制的影响,蒙元统治者更习惯于派遣使臣传递重要信息,处理相关重大事务。元代使臣活动非常频繁,身份地位较高,被赋予了较大的权力,承担了多种出使任务,出使活动覆盖了包括亚欧大陆在内的广阔地域。元代使臣在政治、军事、社会诸方面都发挥着自己独特的作用,是历史舞台上不可忽视的一个重要角色。通过对元代使臣的考察,可以折射出当时的若干历史特征。元代使臣的渊源可追溯至蒙古部落时期的遣使。笔者详细爬梳了《蒙古秘史》中所记载的相关遣使活动,逐次进行了详细的考察。通过对早期遣使活动的归纳总结,笔者认为：蒙古早期的使臣多由贵族首领身边的那可儿担当,出使多服务于军事,尚没有文书和系统的牌符制度。总之,这时期的遣使活动还处于早期阶段,没有形成完善的制度体系。尽管如此,与其它朝代相比,早期的蒙古使臣仍然表现出鲜明的特征,尤其是元代使臣渗透着较强的使役与从属关系,大抵滥觞于此。大蒙古国时期,宣差传旨成为当时使臣活动的一种重要形式。宣差传旨在汗廷布宣政令、处理政务等方面扮演重要角色,具有一定的过渡意义。这为元代遣使制度的形成奠定了基础。使臣由多种不同的使长和官僚机构选派。按照不同的选派者,元代使臣主要可以分为两大类：一是皇帝(大汗)、诸王、后妃等诸位下等贵族集团的选派的使臣；二是由以中书省为代表的,包括枢密院、御史台、行省等各类官僚机构选派的使者。本文依据其不同特点,对各类使臣作了具体的考察。皇帝等诸位下遣使是黄金家族贵族集团加强自身统治、维护和攫取特权的得力工具,也是他们从政治、军事等多方面主宰或干预国家统治的重要手段。其中,元代遣往西藏地区的金字使臣则代表中央威临藏地,有利于加强对西藏的控制和管理。在两都巡幸之际,使臣将巡幸的皇帝及扈从官员与留守的中书省、枢密院、御史台等重要机构联系起来,在传达旨意、通报军情、布宣政令等方面有着出色的表现。这类遣使受到草原家臣政治的影响颇多。官僚机构的遣使对国家权力的运作也具有一定的影响。宣使和奏差是元代官僚机构中特殊而重要的专职使者。他们奉长官差遣督办诸项事务,传达重要信息。由于当时特殊的社会历史背景,宣使和奏差具有使长一长官差遣的混合性质,拥有较大的权力,对国家及社会造成了一定的影响。本文还从使臣的身份地位着手,对两类比较有特色的遣使进行了探讨：怯薛使臣为元代所独有,是同家臣治国的传统联系在一起的；儒士使臣则主要表现了蒙元统治者对汉文化的吸纳和利用。元代使臣的活动对政治、社会产生了比较重大的影响。与完善发达的驿站交通系统相伴随,经行驿路的使臣滥用威权,泛滥乘驿,骚扰沿途的站户官员,产生了比较严重的使臣害政扰民等弊端。此弊端影响时间长,波及范围广,存在着一定的社会危害。政府虽屡次下令禁止,但收效甚微。本文详细讨论了使臣害政扰民的表现形式及屡禁不止的原因。使臣对于元代的皇位继承斗争产生了一定的影响,有着自己独特的作用。元代的使臣打上了家臣制的深深烙印,频繁遣使是“家臣治国”的一种表现形式。受军事征伐活动的影响,蒙元帝国派遣到内属各国、被征服地区的使臣颇为引人注目。本文撷取了元朝对南宋、高丽、安南、日本等典型地区的遣使,结合元朝与其关系的发展演变,探讨了使臣的相关活动。其中,郝经使宋是当时关涉时局的一项重大事件,郝经也是元代的一位重要使臣,文中对此作了详细探讨。元廷同四大汗国之间的使臣往来,反映了元朝同各汗国之间关系的发展变化,促进了东西方的交流。元代出使境外的使臣之中,很多被杀或被囚,或不能顺利达成使命,命运比较悲惨,这与蒙古人的“天下观”和当时的军事政治形势有关。元代使臣的活动与国家政治、经济、文化、军事等各个层面紧密相联。通过对元代使臣的探讨剖析,可从内政、外交诸方面窥见整个元代政治社会生活的面貌。总之,元代使臣处在蒙汉二元的政治文化背景之下,有着自己鲜明的特征,发挥的作用不容低估。更多还原

【Abstract】 In comparison with other dynasties, the shichen (envoys,messengers and staff who serve in the government) of Yuan Dynasty had their special characteristics. Rulers of the Mongolian-Yuan Empire habitually relied on shichen to convey important messages and deal with important affairs, and this habit could be attributed to two reasons. First, the empire had a territory that was unprecedently expansive and it needed more information exchange and communication both interiorly and exteriorly. Second, the influence of the old Mongolian system still lingered. In Yuan Dynasty shichen were very active. They were highly qualified and enjoyed high status.They were given considerable power and assumed many kinds of missions. They covered a wide geographical scope including the Euraisa Continent.The shichen of Yuan Dynasty played a unique role in politics, society, military affairs and many other fields, so they were the group of people that should not ignored in the historical scene. From the exploration of the shichen of Yuan Dynasty, we would discover some historical features about that period.The origin of the shichen in Yuan Dynasty could be dated back to the Mongolian tribe period. The author here specifies the actions of dispatching shichen recorded in Secret History of the Mongols, and studies the cases in detail one by one. By generalizing the action of dispatching shichen in the early period, the author finds that most shichen served as nokor beside the noble leaders, and there were no systematic literary and credential systems. In conclusion, the actions of dispatching shichen in this period were still in the early stage of development, and there were no complete institutional systems. However, there were still some traits that make the shichen in the early Mogolian period different from their counterparsts of other dynasties, especially their strong subordination to and dependence on the nobles,and this influenced the role of the shichen of Yuan Dynasty.After the founding of the the Mongolian Empire,to send Xuanchai to announce decrees became an important form of shichen’s mission and this practice played an important role when the Court was proclaiming and conveying decrees and orders, dealing with government affairs and so on. This practice was more or less of transitional significance,and it also laid the foundation for the institutional system of dispatching shichen in Yuan Dynasty.Shichen were assigned and dispatched by different kinds of shizhang (masters, hosts, usually the nobles who held the power) and bureaucratic structures. In the light of dispachers, there were two kinds of shichen. The first kind were sent by the Emperor (or Khan), princes, queens and other nobles (these people were called zhuweixia in Yuan Dynasty),and the second kind were sent by many kinds of bureaucratic institutions such as zhongshusheng (the Central Secretariat),shumiyuan (the Privy Council),yushitai (the Censorate), xingsheng and other government organs. Basing on the studies of different related features, the author analyzes a variety of shichen in detail.First, zhuweixia’s dispatching shichen (including the Emperor and other nobles).This was an effective method for the nobles of the Golden Family to strengthen their rule and to maintain and acquire privileges. It was also an important means for them to dominate or intervene in the ruling of the empire in terms of politics and military affairs. Jinzi shichen, who were sent to Tibet by the Emperor of Yuan were on behalf of the central court. It was beneficial for strengthening the control and administration of Tibet. When the Emperor was parading between Dadu and Shangdu, shichen served as a connction between the Emperor (including ministers) and important bureaucratic structures(Zhongshusheng etc.) left behind.They played an important role in announcing decrees, transmitting military messages and conveying orders. This type of dispatching shichen was obviously affected by the retainer system.Second, bureaucratic structures’s dispatching shichen.These shichen also had great impact on the management of state power. Xuanshi and zouchai were special and important professional envoys in the bureaucratic structures of Yuan Dynasty. They followed the superior’s orders, handled concrete affairs and transmitted messages. Due to the special historical and social background of the time, xuanshi and zouchai were sent by shizhang(superiors) and held stronger powers. So they had greater impact on the country and society than the messengers of other dynasties.The author studies two distinctive kinds of shichen from the perspective of their identity and status. The Keshig shichen of Yuan Dynasty were unique in history, and the system was closely connected with the tradition of "administering the country through retainers". However, shichen dispatched as rushi (scholar messengers) mainly showed that Mongolian—Yuan rulers absorbed and utilized Han culture.The activities of shichen in Yuan Dynasty had relatively significant impact on politics and society. At a time when the system of stage transport was perfect and convenient, shichen passing through stages abused power, exploited transport resources and harassed the officials as well as commoners. Disturbance on local people and officials by shichen thus became a serious problem. As the problem continued for a long period and the influence covered a wide scope,their behaviors did certain harm to the society. The Government paid much attention to this, but the many measures that it had taken virtually came to no obvious effect. This essay intends to deal with the behaviors of shichen, the social harm brought about by their disturbance and the reasons behind their rampancy. Shichen were also involved in royal succession conflicts and they played there unique roles. And it is important to note that the shichen of Yuan Dynasty were closely connected with the retainer system, and dispatching shichen was an important means to "administer the country through retainers".Affected by the military conquest, the shichen dispatched abroad by Mongolian-Yuan Dynasty to dependent countries and conquered regions draw special attention.The author presents a study of the shichen dispatched to Southern Song Dynasty, Korea, Annan, Japan and other typical areas and surveyed the evolvement of the relationship these regions and Yuan Dynasty. Among these missions, Hao Jing’s journey to Southern Song Dynasty was especially important, so the author analyzed him in detail as an individual case. The missions of shichen between Yuan Dynasty and the four khanates contributed to the exchanges between the East and West and revealed the changes of their relationships. Most of the shichen dispatched by the Yuan Court were not able to accomplish their missions, and many of them were killed or held in capativity. So they had their own unique tragic lot. These were caused by many reasons, such as the political and military situation and the conquest concept of Mongolian rulers. The activities of shichen were closely related to all aspects of the empire’s national life--political, economic, cultural and military, especially military conquest. Through the analysis of the shichen of Yuan Dynasty, we could get an understanding of the political and social life of Yuan Dynasty from the perspectives of internal and diplomatic affairs. The shichen of Yuan Dynasty which rooted in the unique dual Mongolian-Han political and cultural background had their own special characteristics and significant influence that could not be neglected.更多还原